The Como Companion

Como, April 25th 1945: Mussolini’s Fight or Flight Moment

Posted on April 22, 2026 by comocompanion

Ex-partisan Associations, Memorial to European Resistance, Como – Liberation Day 2018

April 25th is Liberation Day when Italy celebrates the civil uprising that heralded the defeat of the Nazis and the collapse of the fascist regime. April 25th was also the date when Mussolini gathered senior members of his government together in Como’s Prefecture (Prefettura). They had to decide whether to take a last stand in the city to fight the partisans, or flee northwards either seeking sanctuary in Switzerland or safety in the Valtellina.

Scene from the film Mussolini Ultimo Atto by Carlo Lizzani with Mussolini and his ministers gathering outside the Milan Prefecture

Earlier that day Mussolini had been in Milan taking part in talks mediated by Cardinal Schuster to negotiate a fascist surrender prior to the arrival of allied troops. However during these talks Mussolini learnt, for apparently the first time, that the Nazis were negotiating independently their own surrender terms with the allies, also involving Cardinal Schuster.

Cardinal Schuster

He took this as a deep betrayal and withdrew from the Schuster meeting to consider his options. Instead of returning to the talks, he and his immediate entourage left the Milan Prefecture to install himself in Como’s Prefecture.

Como and its lake would henceforth form the focal setting of the last desperate acts of diplomacy and individual salvation as the war in Italy came to an abrupt end. Within four days of his arrival in Como, he, his lover Claretta Petacci, her brother, and all the other members of his government who had accompanied him since leaving Milan will be summarily executed. It is even argued that the decision to execute Mussolini would come to be taken in Como in an atmosphere of rush, confusion and broken communications as a full variety of friendly and hostile agencies tried to establish his location.

Every province has a Prefect who is the official representative of central government reporting to the Minister of the Interior. During the period of Mussolini’s RSI (Repubblica Socialista Italiana) from 1943 to 1945, the title of ‘Prefect’ was not used in preference to ‘Capo della Provincia’. Paolo Zerbino was the Minister of the Interior, following the dismissal of Guido Buffarini Guidi earlier in February 1945. He was one of the RSI cabinet members who was to accompany Mussolini to Como. He would subsequently be executed alongside his other government colleagues on the lakefront in Dongo. Traditionally each Prefecture also housed the prefect as well as maintaining adequate facilities for visiting governmental dignitaries or guests. Earlier in the day on April 25th and earlier that week, the Como Prefect, Renato Celio had been in discussions with the local Committee of National Liberation (CLN) on how to organise a bloodless handover of power. It was a member of the Como CLN who advised Celio that Mussolini was on his way to the city. On arrival Mussolini would have quickly established himself in the guest accommodation, had a little to eat in the dining room and then called a meeting to discuss his remaining options.

The Dining Room in the Como Prefecture

Como’s Prefecture is on Via Volta, being just one of the grand palaces on this road. It stands adjacent to Alessando Volta’s home and across the road from the birthplace of Pope Innocent XI (Benedetto Odescalchi). The exterior of the building was remodelled in the 18th century in a somewhat sombre neo-classical style alongside all its neighbours. The interior was first remodelled back in 1625 when two medieval buildings were converted into a single villa to form the seat of government and the residence of the Spanish Governor. The building has remained the seat of government ever since passing to the Austrians in 1713 until 1859 with a brief interlude under Napoleon from 1797 to 1815. The municipality of Como formally sold the building to provincial government in 1874.

Sitting Room

Back on April 25th eighty-one years ago, Mussolini arrived at the Prefecture at 21.30. Having eaten, he convened a meeting of those cabinet members who had accompanied him. They met in the room that links his study and the dining room. The single item on the agenda was what should they now do. Those present were the Minister of the Interior, Zerbino, the Minister of War Graziani, the Minister of Popular Culture, Mezzasoma, the Secretary of the Fascist Political Party, Pavolini and Barracù, the Undersecretary to the Presidency of the Council. He also invited the local Secretary of the Fascist Party, Paolo Porta and the Como Provincial Police Chief Lorenzo Pozzoli to attend. Although not cited elsewhere the SS Chief of the Border Control HQ in Cernobbio, Josef Voetterl, later also claimed to be present.

Meeting Room

Mussolini had three choices before him with the first being to make a last stand in Como with the reinforcement of black shirts promised by Pavolini. The second option was to go up the western leg of the lake with the option of turning at Menaggio to cross the border into Switzerland and to surrender to the American consulate in Lugano. The third option was to take the eastern (Lecco) leg of the lake to reach the Valtellina and the apparent safety of the area prepared for a last stand defence by Pavolini – the Ridotto Alpino Repubblicano.

Alessandro Pavolini, Secretary of the Fascist Party

Lorenzo Pozzoli wrote an account of the discussions that took place that evening, as follows: Mussolini started off by asking Pozzoli to confirm his role as the Police Chief for the Province, and then asked him what the situation was like here. Pozzoli replied, “ Currently, in Como we are calm: however on the outskirts eleven thousand partisans are waiting to enter.” Pozzoli had exaggerated the figures but he and Celio were anxious to persuade Mussolini to move out of Como and avoid a bloodbath on the city’s streets. Mussolini turns to the local Secretary of the Fascist party, Paolo Porta, to ask if Pozzzoli was reporting the truth. Porta said, “Pozzoli is dramatising.” Mussolini replied, “So what is your plan?” Porta continued, ”With the force (of blackshirts) currently in the city we can resist and occupy all the entrances to Como, and keep the entire stretch of the lake clear from the western part up to Menaggio and Porlezza. After that, with the arrival of our columns which are on their way to Como, our current strength of 8,000 men could reach 20 to 30 thousand. These divisions are equipped with arms and armoured vehicles. We have enough food, otherwise we will take it where we find it.”

Paolo Porta, Como Secretary of the Fascist Party

Porta was the commander of the local Brigate Nere who had that week completed a successful round up of partisans in the Menaggio area and so could speak with some confidence about the security of the lake’s western route northwards. Pavolini had also promised up to 20,000 additional blackshirts would very shortly be arriving in Como. Mussolini then turned back to Pozzoli to ask if Porta’s optimism over the second option was justified. Pozzoli, reiterating the potential threat of partisan encirclement, was happy to reinforce Porta’s idea of moving out northwards to Menaggio. He said, “Duce, your stay in Como is not possible. Consider that Varese, Milan and Bergamo have given in, and we will only shed useless blood, especially since I don’t think our men are willing to die for us.” Mussolini retorted, “You seem certain of the strength of the partisans!”

On left, General Sepp Dietrich, Commander of the Liebstandarte and on right, Captain Josef Voetterl, Commander of the SS Border Control HQ in Cernobbio

There only remained the third option to consider – to head for the top end of the Valtellina valley to the area previously developed by Pavolini to form the base for a last ditch stand, the so-colled Ridotto Alpino Repubblicano. This area had also been of keen interest to the allies since it was the source of much of the hydro-electric power used by industries in and around Milan. Since February the allies had been reinforcing the partisans in the area with both expertise and supplies such that everywhere off the main lines of communication and all the hydro electric facilities were in their hands. Since the redoubt was Pavolini’s idea, he and Porta continued to insist the area was safe and was being reinforced with the arrival of further reinforcements of Brigate Nere.

The SS Commander of the Border Control HQ in Cernobbio, Josef Voetterl, later made the claim to have been summoned to this meeting by Mussolini and to be asked his opinion on the security situation in the Alta Valtellina. Voetterl was qualified to give an opinion on this since he was responsible for all the border posts in Lombardy including that at the Stelvio Pass. He had also sought a form of treaty with the commanders of the Alta Valtellina partisans, and, in spite of those negotiations not achieving much, he could claim to have had meaningful contact and be in a position to judge their strength and organisation. So when Mussolini asked him what was the situation in the Valtellina, he replied, “Impossible, your Excellency. The partisans are in control of the entire Alta Valtellina with the exception of the border crossings.” “That’s a lie,” exclaimed Porta.

The office in the Como Prefecture now known as Mussolini’s office.

Having made the decision to leave for Menaggio, Mussolini retired to the office to write a letter to his wife, Rachele, who had arrived in Como the previous day to stay at the Villa Mantero on the eastern edges of the city overlooking the lake. He urged her to attempt to cross into Switzerland at Chiasso. She duly attempted this later on the 26th but she and her children were denied entry. He may not have been aware that his mistress, Claretta Petacci, was also in Como that night staying at the Hotel Firenze in Piazza Volta. She and her brother would later join Mussolini’s convoy in Menaggio.

The representation of the Como Prefecture office in the film ‘Mussolini Ultimo Atto’

This convoy left for Menaggio at 4.30 on the morning of April 26th out of fear of the imminent arrival of the large group of partisans mentioned by both Celio and Pozzoli. Prior to leaving, Mussolini released all his followers from their ‘oath of allegiance’ with the result that when those blackshirts duly arrived in Como later that day, they felt their leader had abandoned them. The vast majority then agreed to surrender terms with the CLN who organised their entry into the city in groups to give up their arms. They were then assembled in the gardens of Villa Olmo for onward transportation to a safe zone established in the Lario Triangle.

Villa Olmo at dusk – a council owned property which has remained underused over recent years

Mussolini may well have considered seeking sanctuary in Switzerland. Once in Menaggio he attempted to avoid his Waffen SS escort and sent Guido Buffarini Guidi to check the possibility of making a crossing towards Lugano in the Valsolda beyond Porlezza. Buffarini Guidi was instead captured by partisans and later executed.

Ex RSI Minister of the Interior, Gujido Buffarini Guidi receiving the last rites before execution

The Nazi escort had been commanded by Karl Wolff to kill Mussolini if he attempted a border crossing, so possibly unwillingly, he returned to Menaggio to join a larger convoy of German troops making their way up the western shores of the lake. This convoy was stopped by partisans on April 27th at Musso just outside of Dongo where they allowed the Germans to continue their retreat northwards as long as they gave up all those Italians in the convoy. Mussolini was discovered in one of the Nazi trucks wearing a German overcoat but also still wearing his distinctive Italian uniform trousers with a broad gold band down the leg. He gave himself up without fight and to the relief of the German troops around him.

Hitler and Mussolini Streetscape Art – 2016, on the Teatro Sociale

As Como celebrated the handover of power to the CLN on April 27th, the Prefect Celio evacuated the Prefecture and the previous fascist occupants of the Casa del Fascio were replaced with representatives of the opposition parties, namely the Communists, the Christian Democrats and the Action Party. The opposition prisoners held in Como’s San Donnino prison were all released and their cells reoccupied by those associated with the fascist regime. An immediate period of bloodletting followed straight after the execution of the fascist hierarchy at Dongo and of Mussolini and Claretta Petacci in Giulino di Mezzegra. Lorenzo Pozzoli and his deputy were tried and summarily executed behind the War Memorial on the Como lakeside. It took the allied authorities a good six months to take control of the situation and to bring an end to the number of extra-judicial death sentences. Any of those former fascists who managed to survive the first six months mostly went on to avoid any form of punishment. The civil war that had started back in 1943 now went into a new phase of hidden conflict marked by random terrorist atrocities and the emergence of shadowy dark state organisations like the P2 masonic lodge and the CIA-inspired Gladio groups.

References

Lorenzo Pozzoli’s description of the meeting in the Prefecture is described in ‘Antifascismo e Resistenza nel Comasco’ by G. Bianchi

Josef Voetterl’s account of his presence at the meeting is included in the Gerd Heidemann interview July 9th 1979 as part of the Gerd Heidemann collection, Hoover Institution Library & Archives, https://n2t.net/ark:/54723/h3zw1943d

Thanks are due to FAI for organising guided tours of the Prefecture during their FAI weekend events Spring 2026.

Further Information

The film Mussolini Ultimo Atto by Carlo Lizzani (1974) is available on Youtube with an Italian or Spanish soundtrack.

More on Mussolini’s last days in Como can be found at From Liberation Day to May Day and in 25th April Liberation Day – Como’s Role in the Insurrection

Posted in History, Places of interest, Uncategorized | Tagged Buffarini Guidi, Como, Lorenzo Pozzoli, Menaggkio, Mussolini, Paolo Porta, Pavolini, Prefecture, Renato Celio, RSI, Valtellina, Via Volta | Leave a comment

Como: Looking for Culinary Authenticity

Posted on April 7, 2026 by comocompanion

Dining out

Most of us visiting or living abroad will look for an ‘authentic’ experience within our chosen destinations, even though in a hyperinformation age, it may be difficult to disentangle what that might actually mean. Fortunately, at least in the area of food and cuisine, we can look to the reasons given by UNESCO for granting Italy an award in the category of ‘Intangible Cultural Heritage’. And once we have considered how Italy met UNESCO’s criteria for this award, we might in turn see where we can find this ‘authentic’ cuisine in Como.

Food as Culture – UNESCO’s Intangible Heritage Award

Italy gained this award back last December (2025) and it is well justified when considering how so many Italians devote energy to and interest in all aspects of food. They endlessly debate its selection, preparation and where to eat out – and of equal importance, where not. This concern with food amounts to a national obsession. There are two main subjects of conversation amongst work colleagues clustered around the coffee machine on Monday mornings. One is sport and the other is where and what they ate over the previous two days. The UNESCO Award is unique – no other country has had its cuisine recognised in this way – and that is because the award (and the Italian obsession) goes way beyond ‘food’ to include in UNESCO’s words ‘a dynamic cultural system, celebrating conviviality, biodiversity, sustainability, seasonality and the intergenerational transmission of culinary knowledge.’ Or in summary, ‘Italian cuisine represents one of the most authentic and profound aspects of national identity.’

Authenticity in Como

Salsicce

If we use UNESCO’s authenticity criteria, we will need to find restaurants that maintain high levels of hospitality, respect seasonal variations and biodiversity and reflect local traditions and regional recipes. It is all too easy to find acceptable but not exceptional places to eat in towns like Como where many customers are temporary visitors. So let’s discount all those undifferentiated restaurants offering what might be called standard Italian mediterranean fare. Typically these include the string of restaurants bordering the lake along Viale Geno. They may be acceptable but none of them are exceptional. To be authentic, our restaurants must offer dishes that reflect the reality of Como’s location at the foot of the Alps, at the tip of the lake and on the borders of the Pianura Padana.

Moltrasio – our area between lake, mountains and the Pianura Padana.

Authenticity requires loyalty and celebration of local culinary traditions. They cannot aim to meet the tastes of the majority since the majority know nothing of these local culinary favourites. Nor can their pricing exceed local expectations since these are restaurants dependent on a year round rather than a seasonal clientele. Above all they must meet the approval of the most severe set of critics any restaurant is likely to find, the local population. All of which goes to set a very high bar for achieving authenticity and for meeting those UNESCO criteria.

First Requirement: Conviviality

Isola Comacina viewed from the terrace of the Restaurant La Tirlindana in Sala Comacina

Let’s start by considering the actual process of eating – of gathering at the domestic dining table, in a work or school canteen or at a restaurant. These are moments to relax, to forget about any of the other stresses of the day and to enjoy being in the company of others. These are sacrosanct and restorative moments essential for physical and mental well being. The image of the British office worker hurriedly eating a sandwich at the work desk is the total antithesis. The Italian worker will spend an hour either in a nearby trattoria or the work canteen followed by a walk to a nearby bar to aid digestion and to take a coffee. There is enough scope for stress in daily life here so all the more need for further restorative care come the weekend. This is the chance, when time is not so tight, for families and friends to gather together to put aside concerns, issues, frustrations and conflicts as they gather around the dining table – ‘a tavola’. This conviviality is a recognition of the restorative value of sitting around the table together, where nothing should be allowed to detract from its pleasure. And then there is the occasional ‘mangiata’ to celebrate some major life event or festival with multiple courses enjoyed over a prolonged session, destined to register in communal memory for years, or possibly a lifetime.

The lakeside restaurant ‘Alle Darsene di Loppia’ in Bellagio

When eating out, the ‘authentic’ restaurant offers unqualified hospitality. It will make you feel at ease as if you were in your own home. The antithesis of this are those restaurants that insist on a narrow time slot for when you should arrive, and worse still, for when you should leave. Instead the ‘authentic’ restaurant grants you temporary ownership of your table and the space you occupy, for however long you wish – and for those big family events, this may be for a number of hours. Such hospitality is a part of good professional service given by those who understand the importance of time spent at the table. It is the magic dust that makes eating out in Italy more pleasurable than in many other countries, even when the quality of food on offer may be comparable. These are expectations and rituals written into the Italian way of life and go a good part of the way to explaining why the country was awarded the UNESCO recognition.

Essential Requirement: Quality

The covered market – mercato coperto – ikn Como

Conviviality and hospitality may often be taken for granted but the quality of food is not. The first rule of quality is in UNESCO’s terms ‘respect for natural rhythms’. This means eating what is in season. Italy is fortunate to be such a long country which helps prolong the season for many fruits and vegetables. Strawberries from the south in Basilicata come into season in March but will later be available from Trento in the north. The same difference extends the usually brief season for asparagus. Even though strawberries grown under glass or asparagus flown in by air can be bought throughout the rest of the year, many will choose not to do so because they fail to meet quality expectations. Once accustomed to table grapes from Puglia whose season runs for a couple months from August, there is little point in buying imports from Chile or the USA in Spring. Seasonal goods taste better, and each season has something specific to offer. For me, one compensation for the onset of winter is when the first oranges and mandarins reach the grocers. Fortunately there is no need to purchase inferior and expensive oranges imported over the summer because then there are other fruits on offer such as cherries and then peaches. If you do choose to buy out of season you will pay more for an inferior product, so why bother when there are always seasonal alternatives available when the price/quality ratio is at its most favourable. Italian cuisine is a true celebration of the four seasons and each season brings its own bounty.

Traditional requirement: Regional Diversity and Identity

Italian cuisine is not the cuisine of a single country but of the various regions. One has to go way back in history to understand why and where Italy’s regional borders were set and what geo-political aspects caused each region to develop its own character. But a significant aspect of this regional individuality is the local cuisine. The thin slices of veal in a tuna sauce known as vitello tonnato is served one way in Lombardy and entirely differently in neighbouring Piedmont. The ‘cucina povera’ dish of tripe is prepared in various ways depending in which region you are ordering it. The way these dishes are prepared has been determined by tradition, by knowledge passed down through generations. Within those traditions, there is always space for individual variations established within a particular restaurant or family and again passed down through time.

Tette delle monache – a dessert from Puglia

Each region has its own specialities – dishes for which they are renowned on a national basis, such as the cream filled ‘tette delle monarche’ (nuns’ tits) from Puglia. Other specialisms can be found just within particular towns or areas within regions such as leeks from the small Piedmontese town of Cervere where they celebrate an annual leek fair in November. The UNESCO award was made partly in recognition of this respect for local diversity and tradition, building on the knowledge of the peasant farmers of old and applying technological advances of relevance to local conditions.

The UNESCO award is a recognition of the ingrained importance of conviviality and hospitality, the respect paid to seasonal variations and for those culinary traditions maintained within differing towns and regions. The key to authenticity lies in how, when and what is eaten.

Authenticity in Como

From 2014 to 2024 one whole pavilion within the Mercato Coperto in Via Mentana was dedicated to local producers. A rich variety of goods was on sale reflecting the alpine pastures for cheese, the lake for fish, the farm land of Brianza for meat and vegetables. Nearby there is a stall selling pizzocheri and ravioli made with buckwheat pasta from the Valtallina. Outlets for these local producers still exist but are not so conveniently concentrated under one roof.

The Food – Polenta at Curt di Poo, Mendrisio

The main ingredient of subsistence cuisine (cucina povera) in and around Como is polenta. Polenta is found in the majority of the dishes on offer in the mountain restaurants even throughout the hot summer months. It is served alongside meat stews or mixed with cheese to form ‘polenta uncia’. Polenta will almost definitely be on offer from time to time in our ‘authentic’ selection below.

Pizzoccheri and polenta uncia – both made with buckwheat flour, butter and cheese. Rich mountain food available all year round!

Como’s culinary traditions are most notably influenced by its nearness to Brianza and Milan with whom it shares traditional favourites such as cassoeula. This is a pork dish traditionally served during the winter months starting in late November. Traditionally the country folk would have slaughtered the family pig in Autumn and then cured the best cuts. What remained – the ears, tail, snout, feet, skin – was used alongside cabbage to make cassoeula. Tradition also determined that one waits for the first frosts before preparing the cabbage. The drop in temperature makes the cabbage softer becoming almost creamy when cooked. Here again, many individual families and restaurants will have developed their own variations on the cassoeula theme. The meat and cabbage dish is then typically served with a portion of polenta making for a delicious but challenging meal to digest, hence the widespread habit of pausing at some stage to drink a shot of grappa.

Cassoeula with polenta requires a shot of grappa to aid its digestion

Como’s Authentic Restaurants

Slow Food is a movement originating in Turin that now operates on an international scale. It is committed to promoting authentic cuisine as stated in its manifesto of 1987. They state it works to ‘give the right value to food, practicing and spreading respect towards those who produce it in harmony with the environment and ecosystems, thanks to the knowledge preserved within local territories and traditions’. A restaurant’s inclusion in their Slow Food Guide is therefore a good indication of their authenticity. Outside of the city they include Il Crott dal Murnee in Albavilla, Il Grifo Lago di Como in Lenno, the Ristorante Mella in Bellagio and the Osteria del Valico in Erbonne. Within Como itself they include the Osteria del Gallo in Via Vitani.

Also within Como I would include the wine bar Pronobis on Via Lambertenghi not just for their commitment to quality and tradition but also for their impeccable hospitality. The restaurant ‘Tira, Mola e Meseda’ on the southern outskirts of the city delivers genuine Lombardy cuisine to a high quality.

Further Information

Osteria del Gallo, Via Vitani 16, Como. Tel: 031 386 8025

Pronobis, https://www.pronobisristoro.it/ Via Lambertenghi 19, Como. Tel: 031 261786

Tira, Mola e Meseda, https://www.tiramolameseda.it/ Via Gabriele Castellini 17, Como. Tel: 031 275 9735

Pastificio Braglia – long established source of genuine pizzocheri, tripe, ravioli and other local specialities

Posted in Culture, Food, Lake, Restaurants, Sustainability | Tagged cassoeula, Como, cucina povera, cuisine, Culture, europe, Food, food tourism, mercato coperto, pizzocheri, Polenta, tourism, travel | Leave a comment

Escaping the Holocaust- Via Switzerland?

Posted on January 30, 2026 by comocompanion

Steel girders mark the border in the Parco Spina Verde above Paré

Once the Nazis had occupied Northern and Central Italy from September 8th 1943, escape across the border to Switzerland was the only option for many Jews seeking safety. But the Swiss had issued an anti-semitic decree back on August 13, 1942 that closed their borders to most Jews. It stated:

«… Political refugees, that is, foreigners who declare themselves as such when first questioned and can also provide proof, are not to be expelled. Those who seek refuge on racial grounds, as for example, Jews, are not considered political refugees».

This decree was not amended until July 1944 when fleeing from racial persecution was finally defined as a valid reason for granting asylum. Prior to that, Jewish migrants were at the mercy of the discretion or degree of compassion displayed by the local authorities. Rejection at the border would often lead to immediate arrest on re-entry into Italy with eventual transportation either from Milan or Fossoli to extermination camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau. The border running from Como to Varese would witness many of the resulting dramas and tragedies arising from the inconsistencies and changes in Switzerland’s asylum policy.

Vineyard just across on the Swiss side of the border in the municipality of Pedrinate

Following the declaration of the Badoglio government’s mismanaged armistice with the allies on September 8th 1943, there was a practical stampede of refugees seeking to avoid the imminent invasion of the Nazis, and Como was at the heart of it. Initially, and perhaps in recognition of the anti-semitic character of the existing restrictions, very few of these refugees were Jews.

A wire fence was erected along the length of the border dividing Lombardy from Switzerland. This has now been mostly dismantled. Here Guards are patrolling in the Province of Varese.

From the 9th to the 16th September the Como-Chiasso border went entirely unguarded and so thousands of recently disbanded troops crossed it. Alongside them came hundreds of allied POWs who had previously been released from most of the prison camps across Italy. Many civilians who had occupied the posts of ousted fascist government officials also considered they would be safer in Switzerland. Initially a relatively small number of Jews joined this exodus. Around 14,000 people fled into Canton Ticino over that 10 day period. Only 2.5% of those fleeing into Mendrisio (Como’s neighbouring province in Ticino) in September 1943 were Jewish. 87% were disbanded soldiers from the Italian Army and 6% were allied prisoners of war. All prisoners of war were accepted and interned for the duration of the war according to the Geneva Convention. If Badoglio’s government had given more forewarning and advice to its disbanded troops, they too could have been interned if presenting themselves in uniform. But the majority had discarded their uniforms and, without official credentials were beyond the safeguards of the Geneva Convention. As a result they were treated similarly to normal citizens with 23% being refused entry. The number of Jewish refugees may well have been relatively few but 40% of them were refused entry.

Male refugees were placed alongside ex-Prisoners of War in Bellinzona’s internment camp if they managed not to be turned back by the Swiss authorities.

That high figure of refusals reveals the Swiss Confederation’s policy at that time towards Jewish immigration. From 1938 onwards, the Swiss were concerned over the numbers of Jewish migrants, primarily from Germany and Austria, taking up temporary residence in Italy. Despite its later appalling record on Jewish expulsions during the Nazifascist era, Italy had welcomed Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe up until 1939. However they were allowed only temporary visas normally providing six months stay to arrange ongoing migration elsewhere. The fascist government had seen these visas as a source of revenue for the transportation companies that would take the migrants on to their final destination. The Swiss Government feared their ability to manage the potential influx of so many Jews residing over the border in Italy and so, to provide discouragement, tightened its policy towards permitting entry. The new restrictions on refugees from Italy allowed for the entry of soldiers, those already with Swiss citizenship, those foreigners who could claim close ties to Switzerland and those foreigners claiming their lives were in danger. But this last category was open to interpretation by local Police commanders.

The main crossing from Como into Switzerland was at Ponte Chiasso.

From 18th September 1943, the Nazis had taken control of the border crossing from Como into Chiasso and had set up their border police force assisted by the ‘Monte Rosa’ fascist militia. From that date, with the establishment of the SS Border Police headquarters in Cernobbio, the Holocaust had arrived in Como. Right from their arrival the Nazi’s primary concern in Como was to prevent the escape of Jews over the border. Adolf Eichmann himself had identified the Como crossing as requiring the immediate attention of Cernobbio’s SS chief, Josef Voetterl. Italy’s foreign Jewish community had also noted how Nazi behaviour towards them in Eastern Europe was being repeated here on Italian soil following the execution on September 22nd of a group of Greek Jews residing on Lake Maggiore at Meina. That group had been rounded up by an SS Battalion a mere six days after their occupation of Northern Italy.

Ex-SS Captain Josef Voetterl on left and SS Supremo in Italy Karl Wolff photographed in Voetterl’s home in Argentina in the 1970s.

As soon as the Nazis had control of the border crossings from Como to Varese, the Swiss Police chief, Heinrich Rothmund, used his discretion over the rights of entry to those avoiding the Holocaust. The standard policy at the time was to only grant asylum to women and children. No men were to be admitted. However, in response to the sudden increase in Jewish migration following the massacre at Meina, Rothmund limited access also to most women allowing in only those accompanying children under six years old.

Lieutenant Erwin Naef on the left

The effect of this ruling led one Swiss border guard to report to his wife how he was left devastated by having to turn back migrants who knew, on returning to Italy, they would most likely face persecution and death. His name was Lieutenant Erwin Naef, a 30 year old businessman posted to guard the border in Pedrinate, a Swiss village just over the border that runs through the Parco Spina Verde north of Paré and Cavallasca. He wrote:

“The decision to reject the Jews as well is a terrible one….I was given the order to welcome children under six and their mothers and to turn away all the others. Girls and women between the ages of 15 and 30 have arrived, six in all, with tattered clothes, distraught faces, hungry and exhausted. I have informed the relevant superiors in Chiasso. The order is to push them back with the use of weapons. The girls knelt before me, crying and begging. I ordered my soldiers to fix bayonets and force them back to the border. […] Carrying out orders with weapons, however, was practically impossible. Because they lay on the ground, begging us to shoot them.”

He reported that his soldiers had apprehended 27 Jews on September 22 and 24, 1943. Seventeen were granted permission to stay with ten rejected and sent back to an unknown fate. These ten would have formed part of the 174 Jews in total sent back from Mendrisio during September 1943.

The data quoted in this article originates from records kept within the Mendrisio Customs area at tthe base of the map.

On the 24th September 1943, Erwin Naef again faced the task of having to turn back a distraught group of refugees. He called his superior in Chiasso begging to allow them all to enter but the response was no. He now faced a crisis of conscience unable to carry out the cruel command but unwilling to defy his military superiors. He asked to be relieved and replaced but he also secretly contacted the local mayor of Pedrinate, Tullio Camponovo. The mayor arrived within fifteen minutes with four local women trained in first aid and organised to assist refugees in distress.

Pedrinate

The town hall looked after the refugees overnight but Erwin Naef, on asking his superiors again to show some charity, was still told that under no circumstances could this group remain in Switzerland. Naef and the women helping the refugees did however come up with a solution. Since these refugees were Dutch nationals, perhaps some political pressure could be applied from the Dutch Consulate on the government in Bern. Phone calls were then made by Pedrinate’s priest to the Dutch consulate and, after much negotiation, the refugees were allowed to stay.

Tullio Camponovo’s daughter, Renata Camponovo

Fifty years later a Dutchman knocked on the door of Pedrinate’s town hall with a bunch of flowers asking for Tullio Camponovo. Unfortunately he had since died but his daughter was able to accept the flowers on her father’s behalf and to hear the stranger’s story. He was there representing his mother who had given birth to him in Lugano a few days after Tullio and Erwin had interceded to save her life.

Undoubtedly, the refugee acceptance policy at that time was inhumane. It took until July 1944 for the Swiss to recognise racism as a valid motive for asylum. Prior to that, safe harbour was at the discretion of the Police Chief who was free to determine local policy or to react under the pressure for compassion from determined people such as Erwin Naef.

Fortunately this harsh interpretation of the Swiss Confederation’s asylum acceptance criteria did not last indefinitely. Debate amongst historians has raged now for some time on exactly how welcoming the Swiss were towards those victims of racism at risk of deportation from Italy to face almost certain death in a Nazi extermination camp. The table below shows the figures for Jewish migration as compiled solely for the Mendrisio Customs district over the length of the Nazi occupation of Italy. (The Mendrisio Customs district covered all the areas of clandestine crossings from Como to Varese). The figures were researched and published by the Swiss historian Adriano Bazzocco.

Data courtesy of Adriano Bazzocco. Accolti e respinti.

From this data we can see that the periods of high rejection were September and December 1943. The figure below gives greater detail of the numbers seeking asylum (in orange) and those rejected (blue).

The mid September peak was provoked by foreign Jews recognising that the Holocaust had now also arrived in Italy following the massacre of Greek Jews in Meina on Lake Maggiore. Subsequently Italy’s national Jewish population came to realise they also faced the same fate when, on 30th November 1943, the fascist government declared that all Jews, irrespective of nationality, were to be henceforth considered enemies of the state and were to be arrested and have their property seized. They had lived with anti-semitic racist laws since 1938 but they now faced the reality that not just their livelihoods were at risk but life itself.

The reaction of the Swiss authorities in accepting or rejecting Jewish migrants was not consistent over those first four months of the Nazi occupation. Their initial response to the first wave of foreign Jews was the most restrictive. This would be the period in which Erwin Naef recorded his acute discomfort in having to return desperate asylum seekers back over the border. However an equal number of Jews sought sanctuary over October 1943 but relatively few were rejected. Even more sought sanctuary in November 1943 but even fewer were rejected. Yet harsh terms were reinstated in December in response to the largest wave of refugees seeking safety after the 30th November declaration. Yet, from the following January 1944 until the end of the war, not a single request for asylum was rejected even if the actual racist grounds for acceptance was not officially recognised until July 1944.

From December 1943 to January 1945, 23 trains left Platform 21 of Milan’s Central Station containing mainly Jews but also partisans and political dissidents with their direct destination Auschwitz. The platform is now a memorial to the Holocaust.

For any men, or even those women unaccompanied by young children, crossing the border over the first four months of the Nazi occupation was a major gamble. There was the hope of salvation and safety from the Holocaust or the risk of being pushed back over the border into nazifascist Italy. For those pushed back, they would face immediate arrest, imprisonment, deportation and death if they fell into the hands of the Nazi border police or the fascist militias patrolling the border. If they managed to reenter unnoticed, they could make another attempt to cross to safety later, perhaps when the Swiss had assumed a more humane policy to acceptance. This is what happened to some of the party Erwin Naef had been forced to reject at Pedrinate back on September 22nd 1943.

Among those Erwin Naef had ordered back over the border on 22nd September 1943 was the family of Wilhelm Gluek aged 30. He was accompanied by his wife Vera, aged 23, his mother-in-law Irene, aged 46 and his sister-in-law Mira, aged 21. All four were refused entry, allowing only his mother Lenka, aged 58, his sister Ella, aged 32 and his two-year old daughter to stay. Erwin Naef had begged his superior Captain Burnier to allow the whole family group to stay but Burnier, acting under orders from the Police Chief Rothmund, refused Erwin Naef’s pleading. The remainder of the Gluek family managed to avoid capture on their return to Italy and indeed made a fresh attempt to cross the border on 1st January 1944. As our table above shows, no requests for admission were denied to Jews on that and all subsequent dates during the war. The Gluek family was thus reunited safely free from the threat of deportation within the Swiss Confederation.

At least in the Mendrisio district, from the data researched by Adriano Bazzocco, it is possible to state that Switzerland, after a poor start, managed to restore its humanitarian reputation as a safe haven for the persecuted. But only once it overcame its initial fear of overpowering numbers and the pervading aspect of anti-semitic racism infecting both it and most of the rest of Europe at the time.

Plaque inserted in the pavement in front of Guido Levi’s home on Via Castel Morrone, Milan. These plaques are placed around Europe outside the homes of those murdered in the Holocaust. This initiative was introduced by German artist Gunter Demnig as a means of confronting those who deny the Holocaust. The German name for these plaques is ‘Stolpersteine’. Those for Guido Levi and his wife Luigina Ascoli were laid on 29th January 2021 during the Covid lockdown.

References

Adriano Bazzocco. Accolti e respinti. Gli ebrei in fuga dall’Italia durante la Seconda guerra mondiale: nuove analisi e nuovi dati. https://adm-stabio.ch/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/2021-AST-Accolti-e-respinti.pdf

Scomazzon, F. (2022). La linea sottile: Il fascismo, la Svizzera e la frontiera. Donzelli Editore.

Como’s Sepulchral Art – The City of the Dead

Posted on January 15, 2026 by comocompanion

The entrance to Como’s Cimitero Monumentale Maggiore, with the cemetery’s church in the background.

Como’s Monumental Cemetery, the city of the dead, is a reflective microcosm of the city of the living – particularly of its art and architecture. As such, it is well worth a visit since no other location brings together in one defined space the city’s disparate artistic traditions and architectural styles from over the last two centuries. We recently visited the cemetery thanks to an initiative of the Como branch of the FAI whose volunteers took an intrigued audience around a selection of the more significant tombs and monuments. This article focuses on the work of some of the better known sculptors in a bid to illustrate the quality and the range of artistic styles on show but perhaps above all, to encourage those of you either living or visiting here to make it out to the Basilica Sant’Abbondio and across to the Cimitero Monumentale – the former for its apse entirely covered in 14th century frescoes and the latter to see exactly how Como’s wealthy bourgeoisie celebrated death.

Looking down one of the porticos that line the perimeters of the cemetery.

Monumental cemeteries, so named for the presence of monuments, took off in the early to mid nineteenth century across many cities in Italy. They arose partly due to the overcrowding and hygienic concerns of inner city graveyards prompting ordinances that prevented further churchyard burials and partly due to the growth in local civic pride. The demand for a ‘city of the dead’ was in turn fuelled by the growth of the population as a whole but particularly in the numbers of wealthy industrialists with their relatively large family dynasties established in a time when mortality rates were still high.

Looking towards the north east cormer of the cemetery and Campo E.

The need for a dedicated cemetery in Como was first considered following Napoleon’s edict of 1804 forbidding church burials – an edict that went ignored for many years. However numerous sites were considered until land was consecrated at the foot of the Parco Spina Verde just south of the Basilica Sant’Abbondio in 1813. The rectangular structure with a central chapel was designed in 1824 and then the final neo-classical design we see today with the porticos branching out from the central chapel was completed in 1841. As such Como’s Monumental Cemetery was established around the same time as those in Genoa and Brescia but earlier than the famous one in Milan built in 1866.

Map of the cemetery,

The Cimitero Monumentale is designed as a rectangle running north to south with its western edge lying at the base of the Parco Spina Verde with the Castello Baradello visible at its south western corner. Porticos run alongside all sides of the rectangle with additional porticos running east west to divide Campo B from Campo C and Campo D from Campo E. The porticos house the individual chapels which are mostly numbered. Directly in front of the entrance is the cemetery’s church and crematorium. There are additional areas to the cemetery beyond the northern, southern and western sides of the rectangle.

Neo-classical may have been the favourite design style for the cemetery buildings but the monuments themselves display a range of styles reflecting the changes in cultural fashion over the subsequent years. From the mid 1800s neo-gothic was the dominant style with some showing the influence of romanticism followed in future years by examples of realism, art nouveau, expressionism in the darker years of the First World War and some cubist influences. There are also examples of works by some of Como’s twentieth century artists and sculptors as well as those by Como’s two famous architectural sons, Federico Frigerio and Giuseppe Terragni. Thus the various styles of the monuments reflect the variety of the architecture in the city of the living. And some of the funerary sculpture has its equivalence in the city’s public places.

Statue of Giuseppe Garibaldi in Piazza Vittoria, designed by Vincenzo Vela who also designed one of the cemetery’s monuments.

The quality of some of the sculpture and artwork is one good reason for visiting the cemetery. Another might be to see the memorials to some of Como’s more famous names. For instance, the memorial that stands out on immediately entering the cemetery is that to Francesco Somaini who died in 1939. The chapel itself was designed by Federico Frigerio, arguably the 20th century architect who has most influenced the way the centre of Como looks today. However the impact here is the large scale ‘Pieta’ in bronze sitting above the chapel and sculpted by Giannino Castiglioni. Francesco Somaini was an industrialist who established his cotton mill in Lomazzzo in 1893 adopting a revolutionary factory design first developed in Manchester. His factory lies alongside the Lomazzo railway station and now houses the series of high-tech startups known as ComoNext. Francesco Somaini was a great sponsor of Federico Frigerio and paid for the construction of Frigerio’s Tempio Voltiano on the lakefront. His own grandson, also named Federico, was a local sculptor of some renown and has examples of his work elsewhere in the cemetery.

The monument to the Somaini family with its base designed by Federico Frigerio and the monumental sculpture by Giannino Castiglioni

The space for the Somaini memorial was gifted to the Somaini family in perpetuity and at no cost. This was a rare concession since almost all other chapels are on a 100 year lease from the municipality at a cost. If you tour round the cemetery you will see signs out on some of the chapels stating how the lease period has run out and needs renewal. Such are the vicissitudes of family fortunes and finances that some may no longer be either able or interested in maintaining the family vault.

Luigi Agliati

A common symbol, particularly amongst the neo-gothic monuments, is that of the grieving woman – similar in some respects to the Pieta’s depiction of a doleful Virgin Mary cradling the lifeless body of her son. On walking over to the church and following the portico to the right, you will come across Chapel No. 1 housing one such mournful lady.

An example of the grieving woman image. This is from Chapel number 59, created in 1890 and is the work of Ezekiel Trombetta

There are a total of eight works by Agliati in the cemetery. Agliati was born in Como in March 1816 and made a name for himself as a funerary sculptor. He was granted honorary membership of the Milan Academy of Fine Arts in 1860. He entered the competition for the design of Milan’s Monumental Cemetery in 1861 and was shortlisted as amongst the five best contenders. In addition to his other works in Como’s cemetery, he also has two works in the city’s Duomo, namely the monument to Cardinal Tolomeo Gallio (1860) and the bust of Bishop C. Rovelli.

Detail of the monument by Luigi Agliati in Chapel number 2

In the next chapel along, Chapel No. 2, there is one of the other works by Agliati dedicated to the memory of the Bagliacca family. At its base there is a well-sculpted marble bas-relief showing a kneeling and shrouded man reaching upwards towards the hand of a woman sat on a cloud with her three children. Her other hand is raised towards the sky where divine light shines out. This symbolism is easily interpreted and the plaque makes explicit that the dead man has gone to join his wife and their three children, all of whom died before him. However, to the left and behind the kneeling man, Agliati has included some less obvious symbolism in the form of a broken tree, to signify death, from which comes a blossoming bud as a symbol of resurrection.

Enrico Rusconi

Chapel number 46, monument created by Enrico Rusconi in 1896 and dedicated to the Segalini family.

Arguably one of the most striking representations of a grieving woman can be seen in Chapel No. 46 in a marble memorial to the Segalini family by Enrico Rusconi in 1896. The perspective employed in depicting the colonnaded portico in the background helps frame the grieving lady placed hugging the cross right of centre in the foreground. She is wearing a long dress with a finely embroidered shawl covering her head and then tied at her waist. The shawl is rendered in fine detail as is the lace work on the lady’s sleeves, revealing Rusconi’s craftsmanship. There are a total of six monuments sculpted by him in the cemetery whilst he is also responsible for the statue of Felice Cavallotti displayed in the front of the Istituto Carducci in the centre of Como.

Chapel number 65, Enrico Rusconi created in 1911 and dedicated to the Bazzi family

The delicacy of Rusconi’s work can also be seen in the monument to the Bazzi family in Chapel Number 65/66. He places the lifeless body in the bottom right of the scene with his head cradled by a woman. A small child comes out of the flowers at the body’s feet. The woman and the child are identified as the wife and child of Uberto Bazzi. The central female figure looking and rising upwards is a symbol of the soul rising to heaven.

Francesco Somaini

The grandson of the industrialist Francesco Somaini entombed under the ‘Pieta’ is a local sculptor who gained an international reputation and whose evolution of style from the figurative to the abstract can be traced here within the Monumental Cemetery. An example of his early work can be seen in the memorial to the Bettoni family in Chapel No. 7.

Chapel number 7. Monumnet by Francesco Somaini created in 1948 for the Bettoni family.

This bronze dated 1948 depicts a lifesized crucifixion scene with Mary to Jesus’s right and Mary Magdalene to his left resting her head on the chest of one of the disciplines. The representation of Jesus’s head with the clearly elongated nose alongside other sculptural aspects point to Somaini adopting some of Picasso’s early stylistic features.

Somaini studied at Milan’s Brera Academy from 1944 to 1948. The Bettoni bronze was commissioned once he had finished his training when he was still working figuratively but with an interest in expressive distortions as in his series of Horse Skulls which he exhibited in the same year.

We can chart Somaini’s development as a sculptor within the Monumental Cemetery by moving on to the northern corner of the portico running south from the entrance way. Here we can see Somaini’s monument to the Targioni-Beschi family commissioned in 1965.

Chapel dedicated to the Targioni Breschi family, designed by Francesco Somaini in 1965.

Here he uses the contrast in polished and oxidised bronze to give drama to a depiction of an exploding crucifix symbolising the power of resurrection over death. Somaini insisted on no words detracting his image and so the family had to purchase the adjacent space (seen to the left of the photo) for the family to include their dedication. The two sections of the entire monument are united by the common background of polished marble.

The last of Somaini’s monuments in the cemetery can be found in Chapel No. 27 in a monument dedicated to the Marinoni family in 1977/8.

Chapel number 27 dedicated to the Marinoni family and created by Francesco Somaini in 1977/8

Here again Somaini works with the contrast between polished and oxidised bronze in this dramatic presentation of a crucifixion. There are still figurative traces in this work in the delineation of the body but the abstract aspects provide the symbolic power of the polished image to stand out from the folds of the background. Here again, a scripted dedication would detract from the sculpture but the side walls give space to put individual plaques to commemorate the family members.

Somiani’s career took him to fulfil commissions abroad from the 1970s in Phoenix and Atlanta in the USA and in Paris in the 1980s. Closer to home he designed the Monument to the Weaver in 1990 for the silk industrialist Mantero near to one of Mantero’s factories on the lakefront at Menaggio. His work ‘La Porta d’Europa’ stands in the Bennet Shopping Centre of Montano Lucino, created ten years before his death in 2005.

Eli Riva

Memorial to Pope Innocenzo XI in Via Odescalchi created by Eli Riva

Another of Como’s much appreciated sculptors was Eli Riva who based himself for most of his professional life in Rovenna, the village above Cernobbio. He had little interest in the commercial art world preferring to focus on his own development of the artisan skills of so-called ‘direct carving’. This was a technique favoured by a number of modernist sculptors such as Henry Moore or Barbara Hepworth in which the stone would be shaped without reference to previous clay or plaster models so as to allow the nature of the material to determine aspects of the final design. A good example of this technique can be seen at the grave of the Baragiola family in Campo D. The sculpture is formed out of the same block of granite that covers the family tomb. Riva has chiselled out of this block the form of a cross lying horizontally which is said to symbolise the body of Christ. Riva’s work developed from the figurative towards the abstract. The Baragiola tomb dates back to the late nineteen sixties.

Monument by Eli Riva created in the late 1960s by Eli Riva and dedicated to the Baragiola family.

In Campo C there is another work by Riva dating back to the same period. This is the monument dedicated to the Ciabattoni family. The five spectral figures are depictions of those from Dante’s Purgatory. Their ghostly quality is accentuated by the contrast in their crumbling appearance against the dark shining polished marble behind them. He apparently got inspiration for these ghostly images from some of the oxidised Gothic statues taken down from Como Cathedral before restoration.

Monument designed by Eli Riva in the late 1960s and dedicated to the Ciabattoni family.

Riva also designed one of the more recent monuments in the cemetery dating from 1978. It is the monument to the Azzimonti-Gioacchini family in Chapel number 60. It is a purely abstract work that symbolises the door or gate into heaven. The only way through the splits in the bronze surface is to become a spirit and thus go through into the afterlife. It seems born out of meditation and designed to provoke meditative moments for those looking on it. The actual dedication to the family is kept separate from the main work itself so as not to detract from its impact.

Monument designed by Eli Riva in 1978 and dedicated to the Azzimonti-Gioacchini family.

Riva is also the creator of the suspended statue of Pope Innocence XI (Benedetto Odescalchi) in the historic centre in Via Odescalchi.

Vitaliano Marchini

The artist Vitaliano Marchini was born in the Province of Milan in 1888 and died in 1971. He was forced at the age of twelve following the death of his mother to find work in Milan. He developed his love of sculpture by working in marble workshops where he learned how to carve. He was exhibiting from the age of eighteen, winning prizes in 1910 and 1912. He then went off to join the Alpini regiment for the duration of the First World War.

There ar two works by Marchini in the cemetery with one being a memorial for the Vigorelli family created in 1918 and a later work created in 1931 for the Onnis family. The later work avoids the harshness and tortured features of the earlier piece which was clearly influenced by the grim experiences of the First World War. The Onnis memorial, found in Chapel number 24, is softer and less pained.

Memorial designed in 1931 by Vitaliano Marchini for the Onnis family.

This bas-relief depicts Christ raising a figure from the dead, whilst pointing to the sky with his left hand suggesting the body is on its way to resurrection. The way Marchini has treated the figures with smooth and sinuous lines is in total contrast to the angular and distressed figures created for his earlier post-war monument.

Aldo Galli

Aldo Galli was born in Como in 1906 and is one of the famed group of local painters that came to be known as the ‘Astrattisti Comaschi’ who established an international reputation for themselves in the pre-war years for their abstract art. The other key members of this group were Carla Badiali and Manlio Rho. Aldo Galli trained as a decorator (in concrete and stucco) and as an art restorer. He never had the funds to pay for full-time art instruction but attended evening classes initially in Como and then at the Brera Academy in Milan. He worked on some of the stucco decoration for Milan’s Stazione Centrale. When he returned to Como in 1932, he met up with his old friend Manlio Rho and, alongside Rho and Badiali, helped established Como’s reputation as a centre for innovative art to compliment the equally innovative work of Giuseppe Terragni and Como’s other rationalist architects.

Aldo Galli’s memorial to the Frigerio family

We may question the capacity of abstract art to convey meaning in a sepulchral and symbolic context when considering his monument to the Frigerio family seen in Chapel Number 52. The abstract purity of this sculpture is moderated in the second of Galli’s works in the cemetery dedicated to the Longatti family in Chapel number 90. Here the materials are similar but the design is more obviously based on the religious symbol of the crucifix. In either case, it is good to see a couple of examples from the ‘Astrattisit Comaschi’ represented in the cemetery.

Aldo Galli’s memorial for the Longatti family created in 1970.

Giovanni Tavani

Residents in and visitors to Como have probably seen the sculpture shown below in the gardens of the Hotel Palace.

The sculpture of Paolo and Francesca in the gardens of the Hotel Palace by Giovanni Tavani.

It is by Giovanni Tavani, a local artist, and represents Paolo and Fraancesca, real life protagonists in a tragedy depicted by Dante in the Divine Comedy. Giovanni Tavani was born in 1934 as the son of the sculptor Pietro Tavani. (There is also a work by his father in the cemetery). He trained as an architect but on graduating devoted himself entirely to sculpture until his premature death at the age of 48 in 1982. He specialised in sacred art and developed a unique style based on medieval representations subjected to geometric revision. He has two works present in the cemetery. Back in the city, he designed the memorial to Giuseppe Sinigaglia, the Olympic rower, behind Villa Geno.

Giuseppe Tavani’s memorial in Campo B

Federico Frigerio

We have already mentioned the work of Federico Frigerio in designing the base (but not the sculpture) towards the entrance to the cemetery dedicated to the Somaini family. As perhaps the most influential architect in definiong how we currently see Como’s centre, it is no surprise that there are also examples of his work in the city of the dead. Arguably the most eye-catching is Chapel number 28 dedicated to the Cattaneo family. Constructed in 1923, here he uses fine materials to produce a highly decorated chapel with mosaics, metal gates and a marble sarcophagus.

Federico Frigerio’s design of Chapel number 28 completed in 1928 for the Cattaneo family.

Other examples of his work can be seen along the same side of the cemetery in the chapel designed in 1900 and dedicated to the Musa family. He also designed the chapel for the Walter family in 1930. This is easily recognised by the golden mosaic dome on the roof of the portico running alongside. The gates depict certain animals each of which had their own symbolic meaning in early Christian art. The two fish, being creatures that live underwater without drowning, represent life after death. The two deer drinking from a spring represent man’s desire for God. The two peacocks are symbols of eternal life and humility.

Detail of the mosaic in the lunette of the Cattaneo memorial.

Giuseppe Terragni

Como’s other great architect, Giuseppe Terragni, the ‘rationalist’ designer of the Casa del Fascio and other great works in the city, designed the two twinned chapels in Campo B. One of these has concave columns whilst its twin’s columns are convex.

The Terragni chapels showing the interplay of concave and convex forms – examples of sepulchral rationalism.

Giuliano Collina

Giuliano Collina was born in 1938 in Intra but moved to Como with his family in 1944 where he lived up until his very recent death on 14th November 2025. He trained and graduated from the Brera Academy. He did not specialise in sacred art but was always interested in the concept of the fallen angel and of angels in general who feature in both of his monuments within the cemetery. He dedicated most of his life to painting whilst also teaching design and art history in Como schools. In his later years he turned to sculpture. He made explicit his allegiance with the Transavantgarde movement which emerged in Italy and Western Europe over the 1970s and 80s. This movement turned its back on abstract art for a return to figurative representation with mythical imagery or symbolism. The first of his angel depictions is in Campo C, close to the Terragni chapels, in a monument dedicated to the Foidelli family and constructed in 1998. Here he presents us with two angels with the one bent over to the ground seemingly searching for a soul which the elevated angel had already sent on its way to heaven.

Giuliano Collina’s two angels in Campo C created in 1998 in a memorial for the Foiadelli family.

The other angel can be seen in Chapel number 37 in a monument constructed in 1996 and dedicated to the Pozzi family. Here the angel is taking the crown of thorns off the cross as if to end earthly suffering. Collina has incorporated the wood grain into the bronze structure of the cross as a gesture towards brutalism.

Giuliano Collina’s second memorial in the cemetery in Chapel number 37 created in 1996 and dedicated to the Pozzi family.

Pelicans

As one might expect in sacred art, religious symbols abound to depict the concepts of resurrection and eternal life or the emotions of loss and grief. Perhaps the most common is the lighting of an eternal flame to denote the ongoing spiritual presence of the deceased and the reassurance that he or she will not be forgotten, that the remembrance will be eternal. We have noted how different birds, animals or fish have their specific symbolic meaning but perhaps one of the more unusual examples is that of the pelican.

A pelican as symbol of self sacrifice and resurrection

The pelican is seen with its beak next to its breast. An ancient legend has it that pelicans are known to wound their own breast when food is short so as to feed their young. Thus the pelican came to symbolise self-sacrifice as in Jesus shedding his blood to save humanity. They also came to symbolise resurrection since, as with Jesus, the pelican survived its act of self-sacrifice. The very same image of the self-sacrificing pelican (but this time seen feeding her young) can be seen in the photograph below taken of a door to a house within Norwich’s Cathedral Close.

Conclusion

This article presents just a few of the monuments in the Cimitero Monumentale and has focussed on some of the artists who also have public sculptures in the city of the living. The artistic variety and quality of the monuments goes beyond those highlighted here. In particular there are some delightful art nouveau monuments as well as some striking realist sculptures. The Cemetery is definitely beyond the normal tourist circuit but then sadly, so is the nearby Basilica di Sant’Abbondio. The latter warrants a visit as a splendid Romanesque church with a fine set of surviving frescoes. The cemetery, the mini-city of the dead, also warrants a visit as a very distinctive reflection of the city of the living with its architectural features miniaturised and its variety of artistic trends presented in a sepulchral context.

Federico Frigerio: The Face of Como

Posted on October 14, 2025 by comocompanion

There is one architect in particular whom we should credit more than any other for influencing the way Como looks today. He is Federico Frigerio (1873-1959) who moved to Como soon after graduating from the Politecnico di Milano in 1896. He then worked incessantly from 1897 until 1945 producing or renovating many of the most significant buildings in the city’s historical centre. His influence on how the centre looks to this day is immense but, for all that, he remains relatively unknown.

Federico Frigerio in front of the cathedral in Piazza Duomo

In terms of fame, Frigerio has undoubtedly been eclipsed by his contemporary Giuseppe Terragni, the rationalist architect of the Casa del Fascio. Terragni’s legacy is perhaps more immediately visible due to its revolutionary nature and its contrast with the predominant ‘eclectic’ style of the day. Frigerio was as revolutionary as Terragni in terms of technique and also adopted contemporary aspects of style but only those that respected tradition or sat unobtrusively within their immediate environment.

Piazza Duomo and Piazza Grimoldi before Frigerio’s vision of clearing the old buildings backing on to Piazza Grimoldi and thus freeing up the Broletto (and restoring its bell tower) and opening up the view to Chiesa San Giacomo.

Piazza Duomo and Piazza Grimoldi

The way we see Piazza Duomo and the attached Piazza Grimoldi today is mostly thanks to Federico Frigerio. The illustration below marks each of his changes and interventions.

See below for the list of Frigerio’s interventions in Piazza Duomo and Grimoldi.

Frigerio’s greatest impact on the face of the city is at its heart – in Piazza Duomo. Over the years he personally transformed it and the accompanying Piazza Grimoldi. No. 1 – He opened up Piazza Grimoldi by pulling down the buildings attached to the Broletto. No. 2 – He then set about restoring the Bell Tower of the Broletto, ridding it of all non original features. No. 3 – He saved the Rose Window on the facade of the cathedral which was bowing out and threatened to collapse, putting at risk the whole of the cathedral’s facade. No. 4 – Along with other restoration inside the cathedral, he arranged for the hanging of the large Flemish tapestries down both sides of the nave. No. 5 – He restored the cupola of the cathedral following a fire in 1935, again returning it to its original design. No. 6 – He redesigned the facade of the Chiesa di San Giacomo. No. 7 – He worked on the interior courtyard of the Bishop’s Palace relocating stonework from the demolished monastery of San Giovanni Pedemonte and then redesigning the front of the palace in 1940. No. 8 – He designed the Banca Commerciale Italiana (later Cariplo Bank and now Emporio Armani) in a neo-renaissance Tuscan style in 1923 with building work completed in 1927. No. 9 – He redesigned the Caffé Bottegone in Liberty style.

Caffé Bottegone

Caffè Bottegone, now the Cafè Da Pietro

The design in 1905 of the Caffé Bottegone (now spanning the entrance to Coin and the Cafè da Pietro in Piazza Duomo) is a great example of Frigerio’s ability to innovate in harmony with tradition. The modernity of his structure in the city’s principal piazza was a statement of Como’s growing confidence in facing the future. It was immediately adopted as a gathering for the city’s artists and writers. His continuation of the portico seen through the ground floor arches integrated the building with its more elderly neighbours whilst its Liberty styling on the floors above marked its modernity. It is just one example of his ability to combine innovation with tradition – a trade mark skill he would deploy in many other instances across the city in the coming years.

Caffè Bottegone – the arches of the portico provide continuity whilst the Liberty styling above showed modernity and innovatuion.

For the last seven or eight years, the ex-Banca Commerciale Italiana has remained closed ever since Cariplo closed its doors. Recently it has reopened as the new site for Emporio Armani which has now moved out of Piazza Cavour. Its the sort of shop that provides a generous floor space for each article on sale, signalling the fact that prices are high. The interior has undergone a total restoration of Frigerio’s original decorations and, fortunately, the staff are happy to see people enter purely to view them in their splendour without any other obligation.

Staicase inside the ex-Banca Commerciale Italiana

The Politeama and Tempio Voltiano

Beyond the ‘Centro Storico’ there are two particular structures for which Frigerio is justifiably renowned. The Politeama, facing on to the Piazza Cacciatori delle Alpi, was built in 1909 and was the first building in Como to be constructed with reinforced concrete – a technique that had only been recently developed. Unfortunately the Politeama has been left closed since 2005 and both its interior and exterior require extensive renovation. It was, however, a revolutionary building in its day designed to provide a venue for popular entertainment including cinema and for housing exhibitions. It also contained a hotel and a restaurant. The building is owned by the town council who would like to find partners prepared to fund its restoration. An original photo of the interior shows just how splendid the building was at its inauguration.

The interior of the Politeama

Two structures, both close to each other, dominate Como’s western section of the lakefront . One is Giuseppe Terragni’s War Memorial (1931-2) and the other is Federico Frigerio’s Tempio Voltiano (1925-8). The Tempio Voltiano was conceived to honour the work of Como’s most famous son, the scientist Alessandro Volta. It was financed by a local entrepreneur, Francesco Somaini, as a memorial to celebrate the centenary of Volta’s death in 1827. The heart of Frigerio’s design is neo-classical with the addition of various external decorative features which had become his trade mark. He is said to have taken inspiration from Rome’s Pantheon as an appropriate model for the commemoration of a famous figure such as Volta. It houses various artefacts associated with Volta’s research into electricity and the development of batteries.

Interior of the Tempio Voltiano

As with the Politeama, Frigerio used reinforced concrete at the heart of the building’s structure which may explain why it lacks a degree of delicacy in its proportions that are commonly associated with neoclassical design. This heaviness is evident when compared with another neoclassical structure dedicated to Volta – his funereal vault in the cemetery at Camnago Volta.

Volta’s tomb in Camnago Volta. Designed kikn 1831 by Melchiorre Nosetti

A Federico Frigerio Itinerary

Frigerio’s influence on the face of Como is almost all around us given his works of restoration, architectural design and external and interior decoration. But the following itinerary would give a good indication of the range and quality of his influence on his adopted city. The itinerary starts off opposite the Como Borghi train station and continues northwards to finish in front of the Palace Hotel on Como’s lakefront.

A Federico Frigerio Itinerary starting from Como Borghi to the Palace Hotel

No. 1 – Frigerio was the architect of the Casa Cattaneo (1910) in Piazzale Gerbetto opposite Como Borghi railway station. No. 2 – He designed the school ‘Magistri Cumacini’ in 1945 on the corner of Via Sirtori and Via Giulini. No. 3 – He was responsible for the presentation of the series of archeological remains in the Museo Archeologico (which unfortunately is still closed due to work on restoration). He was also responsible for the study and excavation of the Roman Porta Praetoria, close to the Porta Torre and in the basement of the Liceo Scientifico Alessandra Volta. No. 4 – He designed the building that now houses the Ufficio Postale on Via Vittorio Emanuele on the corner with Via Pertini. Originally this was the site of the Società Banacaria Italiana. No. 5 – Piazza Duomo and Piazza Grimoldi. See the account above of the various works by Frigerio in this principal piazza at the heart of the old town. No. 6 – Turn off Piazza Roma on the corner of the Just Art Cafè down Via Rodari to view Frigerio’s own home at the end of the street on the right. No. 7 – One of his first commissions was designing the exterior decoration of the Hotel Palace (then called Hotel Plinius). He also designed the interior and exterior decoration of the adjacent Albergo Terminus.

The doorway to the home of Federico Frigerio in Via Rodari

This is by no means a complete list of Frigerio’s work in Como but will hopefully give an idea of the quality and quantity of his various commissions. He perhaps more than anyone else over the last 200 years has had the greatest impact on the face of the city’s centre. His eclectic style may not be to everyone’s taste but it is hard to deny that his transformation of Piazza Duomo was a massive improvement. Along with these changes and the addition of the delightful Caffé Bottegone, he gave the city the confident face to confront its touristic future, and to celebrate its cultural past.

Tempio Voltiano, designed by Federico Frigerio and constructed from 1925 to 1928

Como’s Twin-Tailed Mermaids

Posted on June 23, 2025 by comocompanion

The symbol of a twin-tailed mermaid can be seen on a number of Como’s buildings, most clearly on the keystone of the doorway into No. 16 Via Odescalchi. The same symbol can be seen above the rear doorway of the Basilica San Fedele and, in more decorous fashion, on the walls of the Cathedral and within the town’s main cemetery. The design is of a very particular type of mermaid – one with two tails, and its origins and significance are far from clear although the figure, undoubtedly feminine, has a name – the Melusina.

The Melusina on the keystone above the doorway to Via Odescalchi, 16

Keystone Carvings in Como

Our Melusina in Via Odescalchi is carved into the keystone of the arch surrounding the principal doorway to the urban villa (or palazzo). Its purpose would have been very similar to the mezuzahs pinned to the lintels of Jewish homes to protect the inhabitants from evil. The Melusina would have been supposed to offer a similar protection as well as bringing prosperity and even fertility to the household. The Via Odescalchi keystone also includes what has been defined as a masonic symbol at its base symbolising liberty.

Crest of Adamo del Pero iabove the entrance to his palazzo at No. 6 Via Adamo del Pero

Most other keystone carvings in the city depict the heraldic crest of the resident family. The clearest of these is found in Via Adamo del Pero above the entrance way to Del Pero’s home. The family crest depicts a series of pears as befits his family name.

Other crests exist above doorways on both sides of Via Balestra and above the entrance to Palazzo Odescalchi on Via Rodari but are so worn with age that it is impossible to make out their designs. These all date from the Renaissance period and adorn doorways decorated in contrasting bands of Varenna and Musso marble, as was quite commonly used on many of Como’s Renaissance palazzi. The more recent crest above the doorway of the bar at the theatre end of Via Porta shows an anchor and the staff of Mercury – a caduceus- leading to the idea that the householder was a merchant involved in shipping on the lake.

Decorative Melusinas on Como’s Cathedral. Left, on the southern wall, centre and right on the Porta della Rana.

Elsewhere Como’s melusinas are placed on religious buildings with those on the cathedral appearing less suggestive and more decorative. The two carved on the Porta della Rana, the work of Tommaso and Jacopo Rodari c. 1507, are more decorative (and decorous) renderings of the earlier medieval symbol. The carvings of the Rodari brothers on the cathedral combine both religious and mythological symbols, as in the case of the Melusina on the Porta della Rana who displays her wings but not her bifurcated tale. In all these cases, they are more bowdlerized versions than the older San Fedele’s melusina.

Melusina on the keystone above the doorway to Basilica San Fedele on Via Vittorio Emanuele.

The most recent Melusinas can be found in the Cimitero Monumentale on the western borders of the town. The cemetery was built from 1811 in the neoclassical style with two wings opening up right and left of the main entrance. Both wings form an arcade with a series of symbols displayed at the apex of each arch. One of these symbols is that of the Melusina represented in a simplified form to make best use of her symmetry to create a circle from her twin tails. She also holds what looks like fruit in her hands, possibly in line with her association with fertility and prosperity but, in the cemetery’s case, not longevity.

Melusina in the Cimitero Monumentale

Perhaps the best known contemporary use of the Melusina is in the ubiquitous logo of the American coffee chain, Starbucks. The founders of Starbucks took the company name from a character in Herman Melville’s novel, Moby Dick. In line with the novel’s blend of reality and myth, they adopted the Melusina as their company logo. After the original iteration in 1971, the logo has gone through a series of modifications which initially stressed the symmetrical qualities of the design before gradually divesting her of her legs. No doubt the designers behind this evolution presented sound marketing arguments for her bowdlerisation (in that she now reveals nothing of her lower body) but maybe they were also concerned over the potential ‘inappropriateness’ of the twin tailed maiden. If so, this was not a concern to the Catholic church in the 1500s although the Protestant leader of the Reformation, Martin Luther, is said to have denounced the Melusina as an agent of the devil.

Top left, the original 1971 logo. Top right, 1987 version. Bottom right, 1992. Bottom left, present day.

Melusina’s Origins

The Melusina and the myths that surround her were formed in ancient history as part of a magical world of mermaids, water sprites and forest nymphs. She may well have been identified with possessing some form of sexual power facilitating fertility and procreation. By placing her image above a household entrance, she may have been called upon to provide the inhabitants with a degree of protection from malign spirits as well as a boost to their libido.

The first appearance of Melusina in literature came out of late 14th and early 15th century France. As a British Library blog reports, she was born out of that period when mythological or magical accounts intersected with attempts at historical reporting. The story teller was Jean D’Arras who compiled a series of tales from around 1382 to 1394 called ‘spinning yarns’ in that they were said to be told by ladies as they collectively sat around their spinning wheels. In his account Melusine (as known in France) was the daughter of the King of Scotland and his fairy wife. She fell out with her father and entombed him within a mountain. As payback, the King’s fairy wife condemned Melusine to turn into a serpent from the waist down – but only each Saturday.

Melusine depicted by Julius Hubner, 1844. Here we see Raymond spying on Melusine on a Saturday when she was transformed into a mermaid.

Thus her fable was born out of Celtic and Gallo-Roman mythology and promulgated under the Plantagenet thiefdom over Western France and the British Isles. The heart of her influence was in the region of Poitiers. It is here she is said to have won the heart of a poor but noble gentleman called Raymond, Lord of Forez in Poitou. He stumbled across Melusine in a forest as she combed her golden tresses, dressed in a flowing white gown and sat beside a fountain. Enchanted by her beauty, he naturally fell immediately in love. She agreed to their marriage on the one condition that he allowed her to remain totally secluded every Saturday and he was not to make any attempt to see her then.

As a result of this marriage, the Poitou region began to prosper with forests cleared and land cultivated. Cities grew and castles were built including her own, the Castle of Lusignan. To this prosperity Melusine also brought fertility bearing ten sons to Raymond. Some of these became Kings and others became tyrants and some gained fame for exploits during the Crusades.

All of this mostly good fortune came to an end the moment Raymond could not resist seeing what Melusine did every Saturday. Spying on her through a keyhole, he saw her lower body transformed into a serpent. Later he could not help berate her by calling her ‘Serpent’. At this point Melusine developed wings and flew away.

The tale comes with a number of embellishments resulting from her ‘mixed race’ heritage in being half fairy and half human. But her lasting significance is in her fertility and her capacity to bring prosperity to Raymond’s family and to the region around Poitou.

Another interesting fable mixing mythology with early historical accounts and also including mentions of the Crusades was the 14th century account of Richard Coer de Lyon, a magical telling of the life of this Plantagenet King of Western France and England. In this version, King Richard’s father, Henry II, does not marry Eleanor of Acquitaine but someone called Cassodorien, the daughter of the King of Antioch. They have three children, namely Richard (the later King), John (responsible for Magna Carta) and a daughter named Topyas. History records Richard’s exploits and also those of bad King John but Topyas is never mentioned because she was whisked away by her mother who sprouted wings and took to flight when she was forced one day to sit through an entire Mass.

The Melusine myth has intrigued musicians and authors throughout the centuries.Cécile McLorin Salvant at The Met Cloisters: Mélusine | MetLiveArts

The Melusine myth became well established in medieval times across France, Germany, Luxembourg and Cyprus with a number of embellishments and variations but with some commonality relating to her ability to bring prosperity. The myth has fuelled many creative endeavours over the centuries up to our own days with the most recent perhaps being the work of the French American jazz singer Cécile McLorin Salvant.

Melusina in Venice and Moltrasio

Orio and Melusina lived in Sotoportego dei Preti in Venice. Touching the heart-shaped stone above the entrance is said to bring good luck.

The Venetian version has Melusina starting life as a mermaid who gets caught up in the nets of a local fisherman called Orio. She was of course both beautiful and captivating resulting in the two falling in love and Melusina promising to give up her sea life, tuck away her tail and live as a normal human being at least for everyday of the week except Saturday. Needless to say the young man was supposed not to witness this weekly metamorphosis but he did. However the weekly curse was cured when the two married and subsequently went on to live happily together with their three children until Melusina died a natural death. Following on from her death, Orio continued to find his home and children miraculously well cared for whenever he returned from work. At least until one day he returned home early to see a snake on the floor of his kitchen. He killed the snake out of fear for his children. From that point on, the house was never tidy on his return home and Orio came to realise that he had inadvertently killed the serpent spirit of his dead wife.

The Moltrasio version of the Melusina myth

The Eco-Museo of Moltrasio recently held a story telling event around the town where they enacted their own local version of the Melusina myth but with some radical differences. The setting for the drama was no longer a fountain in the middle of a forest but the lovely waterfall on the southern edge of the town – the Cascata Cam. Moltrasio’s Melusina is saved by a local fisherman called Luisin (similar to the name of Melusina’s Castle of Lusignan). He was out fishing for trout in the pool of the waterfall but instead caught a massive catfish called Raimondo (the original Melusina’s husband) who had previously swallowed Melusina alive. Luisin thus managed to free Melusina from the spell that kept her entrapped inside Raimondo.

Posted in Art, Culture, Folklore, History, Places of interest, Uncategorized | Tagged carving, crests, Duomo, fiction, France, History, keystones, legends, Melusina, mermaids, Moltrasio, mythology, myths, Porta della Rana, Renaissance, Richard I, Rodari, travel | 1 Comment

Beyond the City Walls: Via Milano

Posted on May 21, 2025 by comocompanion

Via Milano looking south with the bell tower of San Bartolomeo in the background

Given the charms of Como’s historical centre and the attractions of the lake, there may seem little reason for residents and visitors alike to venture beyond the city walls. But a stroll down Via Milano offers a fascinating and enlivening experience – one that could even be economically worthwhile. Via Milano is a mixed environment, with shops, cafes, restaurants, residences appealing to a broad range of tastes and budgets. In contrast, the historic centre’s commercial interests are becoming focussed on a closely defined and restricted range of customers. This ‘exclusivity’ is directed primarily at visitors rather than residents. Its ‘econocentric’ development in shops, housing and food is heading towards creating a living museum – beautiful but soulless. A trip down Via Milano is so stimulating because it has all that the historical centre is losing – variety, choice, contrasts, vitality and diversity. It is alive and energising. If the historic centre can be symbolised as a beautiful quiet Monet-style lily pond, then Via Milano is a fast flowing trout stream!

The eastern side of Via Milano is characterised by deep courtyards extending up to 100 metres back. This one houses an antiques shop at its base.

Just Taking a Stroll

You do not need an ostensible reason for visiting Via Milano. Just going for a stroll is cause enough since there is much to appreciate in just walking up the street and diving down any of the alleys or into one of the many courtyards. I recommend starting by walking up the east side under the porticos of the Le Due Corti Hotel.

Casa di Ringhiera – traditional workers and artisan housing, Via Milano

Most of the building on this side is as old as in the historic centre but the absence of any grand urban villas or palazzi allows space for more humble residences including traditional ‘case di ringhiera’ characterised by balconies (ringhiera) shared by inhabitants. In the past these apartments would also have shared a single outside toilet placed at the end of each balcony. Many of the courtyards extend back almost 100 metres.

The northern end of Via Milano, the porticos below Le Due Corti Hotel

Via Milano’s urban environment is, like most of the city, in a state of constant evolution, but one that presently seems to be keeping modernity and tradition in fine balance. Whilst some of the older buildings are going through radical renovation and will undoubtedly go on the market at a high price, there are many others that remain more affordable. Rents for commercial properties are lower than in the historical centre and lower still for those found within the courtyards.

BLUE – shops, RED – Restaurants, YELLOW – history, GREEN – strolling

This means that some of the older commercial establishments are not being forced into closure but new independent units can afford to start up. A specialist independent wine and spirits outlet such as Enoteca CM Vini, located down a courtyard linking Via Milano with Via Cadorna, can afford to sacrifice passing footfall in exchange for a cheaper rent – and then rely on developing a reputation for quality of service to attract and retain their customer base. This is not to say that the same principles are not applied in the historic centre. – but not by all. There are those whose clientele are mainly transitory who have realised that quality is optional. They only need to promise without needing to deliver.

A stroll down Via Milano is in itself rewarding but there are more definite reasons for visiting either for shopping, eating or absorbing aspects of local history, as I hope to show.

Visiting to Shop

The interior of the Cappelleria Rossini – a shop founded in 1897 and entirely dedicated to the sale of hats.

The shops down Via Milano are a true mix, with a number of traditional and long established establishments such as the bread shop ‘Ul Pan de Com’ established in 1927, the Cappelleria Rossini in 1897 or Bogani art supplies in 1933. Yet there are also a number of much newer establishments such as the Enoteca CM Vini already mentioned or the singularly esoteric Japanese import emporium, Shin Crazy Comics.

For clothing, another branch of the ubiquitous upmarket Tessabit chain stands alongside the traditional less glamorous but certainly more practical and economic Zio Ghelfi, whose exterior is a reminder of the look of Italian high streets in the 60s or 70s.

Take a break from window shopping by stepping into the café-bar called Trani for a coffee in elegant surroundings.

Interior of the Trani Caffé specialising ikn products from Puglia

They specialise in pastries and other goods from Puglia and, as a relatively recent startup, bear witness to Via Milano’s capacity to allow independent commercial enterprises to establish themselves alongside their longer term neighbours. If Trani does not attract you there are a good number of alternative cafés along the street to tempt you in.

Zio Ghelfi, old style clothing shop alongside Tessabit.

Visiting to Eat

There are sound reasons for visiting Via Milano just to eat. Whilst the lake front may offer a very tempting location, few of the restaurants offer quality at an acceptable price. Via Milano offers economy and, its particular advantage, diversity. Whilst fixed price ‘Menu del Giorno’ deals are hard to find in the centre, they can readily be found along Via Milano. For example, the Ristorante Paradise has a range of midday formula on offer for those looking for traditional Italian cuisine or pizza.

Ristorante Pizzeria Paradise – not pretty but

Koi Ramen, the only Japanese restaurant in Como specialising in ramen noodle bowls, offers midday menus all served in their Hello Kitty style dining area – or even deliverable within the historic centre. Alongside this restaurant and the Shin Crazy Comics store, there is yet another Japanese establishment, Panfuwa, offering sweet and savoury soufflé pancakes.

Advice at Koi Ramen on how to put together your ramen dish.

Traditional Italian dishes are served at the Enoteca 84 or at the nearby more upmarket Trattoria L’Antica on Via Cadorna.

For those visiting Como on a strict budget I would recommend they take full advantage of whatever breakfast is available if staying at a Bed and Breakfast, then strolling up Via Milano at midday for a Menu del Giorno of their choice. They might again return to Via Milano in the evening for an aperitif at Bar Tulipe where the cocktails are served with a selection of snacks described most frequently in the online reviews as ‘abundant’ (12 euros for lunch and 9 euros for ‘apericena’).

The diversity in the offer on Via Milano increases the further south you walk, particularly once you cross over the traffic lights beyond San Bartolomeo Church. Here you will find the Taj Mahal and Kashmir restaurants, and at the top end of the street near San Rocco there is a Nigerian restaurant called Jollof Lake Como run by the very welcoming Linda. As she states, her restaurant is the only Nigerian restaurant between Milan and Como.

Jollof Lake Como, run by Linda offering Nigerian and West African cuisine.

Visiting the Past

Francesco Capiaghi, ‘After the surrender 22nd March 1848

If strolling just beyond the Porta Torre at Piazza Vittoria, back on 22nd March 1848, we would have witnessed the surrender of the Austrian garrison to the committee that had organised the patriotic revolt in Como – the so-called Cinque Giornate (5 Days). Scenes from that surrender ceremony are depicted in the bronze panels around the base of the statue of Garibaldi in the middle of the piazza. Como’s rebellion was repeated also in Milan and Brescia but did not result in any lasting independence for Lombardy.

Via Giulini, the trattoria used to treat citizens wounded in the Austrian attacks on 21st March 1848

The day before the surrender, the 21st March 1848, the Austrians had broken out of their barracks and gave chase to the Como citizens up the length of Via Milano. Many civilians were injured and taken for treatment to the restaurant subsequently named the Trattoria di Soccorso on Via Giulini, more recently named L’Ultimo Caffé. This trattoria was still functioning up to three or four years ago but now lies vacant awaiting a fresh reincarnation.

Mural within the court of the San Bartolomeo Church depicting the scene of the Anello del Miracolo. The scene is looking south across the bridge crossing the River Cosia with the Convent of Santa Clara on the right (no longer present) and the demolished church of Saint Protasio in the distance.

At the bottom end of the road, when we reach the Church of San Bartolomeo, we arrive at another site of historical (or mythological) interest. On the 25th March 1529, the annual Holy Thursday procession carrying the ancient crucifix housed in the Santuario del Santissimo Crocifisso in Viale Varese was halted at the bridge over the Cosia just south of San Bartolomeo. Further progress out of town to the Convent of Santa Clara (now just the name of a bus stop) was barred by a thick chain placed there by the Spanish authorities. Its purpose was to prevent French cavalry from crossing the river from the south to attack the city. The guards refused to remove the chain and merely suggested that the procession could proceed by ducking under. As the crucifix was lowered, it seemed to cause the chain’s housing in the pillars to shatter and thus allow the procession to continue unimpeded.

The Anello del Miracolo attached to a pillar on the outside of San Bartolomeo.

This supposed miracle went to reinforce the local population’s belief in the special powers of the crucifix in protecting the city. The Santuario S.S. Crocifisso in Viale Varese, which still houses the crucifix, became the site of a cult that gained adherence across Lombardy and the Canton Ticino that persists to this day. The crucifix was further adorned with a golden crown in a ceremony conducted by Milan’s Archbishop Schuster on 17th June 1945 giving thanks to the power of the Crucifix in saving Como from any effective bombardment during the war. (See also the cult of Saint Barbara who was also credited with the same power.)

Conclusion

@Comocomera, 19th century view looking north towards the city centre from outside SAn Bartolomeo

Via Milano’s commercial establishments do seem particularly friendly and welcoming, possibly because they are flattered by the effort any visitors have made to take themselves beyond the historic centre. I believe that effort is well worthwhile, not just because of the variety on offer on Via Milano but because of its contrasting vitality and atmosphere with the historic centre. Its balance of innovation and tradition reinforced by its diversity tend to highlight what the historic centre risks losing in its evolution towards a living museum. Urban environments are of course in a state of continual change but right now Via Milano seems in a more healthy condition than Como’s historic centre suffering under the pressure of increasing real estate and rental values. Some might argue that this increase in wealth has at least allowed for the renovation of a number of the old palazzi in the centre and this is adding to its overall aesthetic attraction, but these new residential units are destined for use by a transitory population who will only go to reinforce the trend towards a one market economy. Finally, to strain even further the stream and pond metaphor, the lily pond will undoubtedly continue to appear increasingly pretty but the still waters may atrophy unless charged with the clean fresh waters from its neighbouring chalk stream tributary. Viva Via Milano!

Garibaldi, the Battle of San Fermo and his Como Bride

Posted on April 23, 2025 by comocompanion

Garibaldi first met his future second wife when she, as a young girl of 18, had crossed enemy lines to ask him to direct his army to Como.

In May 1859, Giuseppe Garibaldi launched what would become known as the Second Italian War of Independence. He had formed the Cacciatori delle Alpi, a small army thanks to a decree issued by the Royal House of Savoy in Piedmont. On May 23rd 1859, he and his army crossed the border into Lombardy which was at the time territory under Imperial Austrian rule. He immediately liberated the town of Sesto Calende at the base of Lake Maggiore but then suffered a setback when attempting to take Laveno. He then turned back towards Varese. As he approached the city, he encountered a girl travelling by cart in the company of a young priest. This meeting was to lead to a doomed romance, a failed marriage and a scandal that divided the aristocratic families of Como over the following two decades until Garibaldi’s second marriage was finally annulled.

The Villa Raimondi in Fino Mornasco

Giuseppina Raimondi was the illegitimate but recognised daughter of the Marquis Giorgio Raimondi, a fervent patriot in the cause of national independence – a cause to which she too was totally committed. So much so that she had volunteered to carry a message to Garibaldi asking him to liberate Como as soon as possible due to the imminent threat of the Austrians sacking the city. At considerable risk to herself and her companion, she had crossed enemy lines to deliver her message safely. Garibaldi was struck by both the spirit and beauty of this courageous and committed young girl in that she strongly reminded him of his first wife, the much loved Anita who had died ten years previously. He penned a reply for Giuseppina to carry back dated Robarello, 26th May 1859 stating:

‘I am facing the enemy in Varese; I think I will attack them this evening. Send the fearful and their families out of the city but retain the virile population, sound our anthems and ring out the bells so that with our two companies we will put up every possible resistance.’

To Giuseppina he said,”Tell them to stand firm and resist until tomorrow. In the meantime, go up into the mountains and to Ca’Merlata. Tomorrow I will be in Como with my Cacciatori delle Alpi.”

Trezzini sergeant in the cacciatori degli apli

Sergeant in the Cacciatori degli Alpi, attributed to A. Trezzini

The next day the Cacciatori delle Alpi fought their successful battle against the Austrian regiments at San Fermo, on the edge of Como. He and his troops descended the Valfresca to enter the town that evening. He stayed the night at the home of a local aristocrat and officer, Pietro Rovelli, leaving at 3.00 in the morning to continue his march. But he would soon be returning to Como in search of the beautiful young girl he had encountered the day before battle with the single intention of making her his bride.

Painting San Fermo Battle Angelo Trezzini

Painting of the battle scene, Battle of San Fermo by Angelo Trezzini who was himself a soldier in Garibaldi’s Cacciatori delle Alpi.

The Marquis Giorgio Raimondi and Giuseppina

The Raimondis were a long established aristocratic family. They were first noted in Como back in the 12th century and subsequently increased their financial and commercial power throughout the 15th century. By the 16th century they had become part of the ruling elite of the city taking their place in the so-called Decurion of city rulers. Giorgio’s ancestor Gian Battista Raimondi had been granted the title of Marquis by the Austrian Empress Maria Teresa back in 1745 – a title granted to the first born of the family in perpetuity. Giorgio Raimondi, Giuseppina’s father, had an Odescalchi as an uncle, and on the death in 1824 of Innocenzo Odescalchi, he inherited Villa Olmo in Como and the Villa Raimondi in Fino Mornasco. The family could thus add these two villas to those they also owned in Birago, Gironico, and Minoprio.

Early photograph of Giuseppina Raimondi and Garibaldi

Giorgio was a fervent patriot who had taken an active part in the local rebellion against the Austrians in 1848 – the so-called ‘5 Giornate’ that led to the surrender of the Austrian garrison. For this he was forced to exile himself and family in Switzerland where in 1849 he bought another villa in Mezzana. Giuseppina had become accustomed to smuggle arms and literature in support of the patriot cause from Mezzana down to Como. It was on one of these missions that she volunteered to carry the message over to Garibaldi.

Giuseppina was born on 17th March 1841, as one of Giorgio’s five illegitimate children. Giuseppe Garibaldi would have been 34 years old at the time. She and her other siblings were all recognised by Giorgio although her mother is recorded as unknown on her birth certificate. Her title of Marchioness was granted or used purely out of respect and not due to rights.

Unrequited Love

Garibaldi retained the image of that courageous young girl who had crossed enemy lines so effectively in order to persuade him to liberate Como from Austrian oppression. He returned to Como in June 1859 determined to woo his new found love. Giuseppina was not or never would be in love with Garibaldi. She was often described as beautiful whilst he may well have been the most heroic contemporary figure in Italy but he was no ‘bell’uomo’ at 52 with his bowed legs, long hair and straggly beard. She rejects his proposal of marriage and sees him leave Como in July on a steam boat for the Valtellina.

Garibaldi recalled this period of unrequited love as follows in an unpublished section of his Memoirs included in Giacomo Emilio Curatulo’s book ‘Garibaldi e Le Donne’ (1913):

I, I have already said, had been struck, as if by a vision, at the first sight of that dear creature, and her image had been engraved in my heart in indelible characters, on the day in which she appeared to me by the woods, leading her cart and accompanied by a priest who was a family friend.

I had not been able to conceal, in the few visits to the pleasant Villa Olmo, the interest that she inspired in me; and in the only favourable moment for a demonstration, met at the Hotel dell’Angelo, in the port of Como on the shore of the lake, where kneeling, I kissed that beautiful hand and exclaimed: “Oh, I want to belong to you in any way!”

Those words seemed not to have achieved their goal, and I almost despaired of having inspired what I felt in my heart.

He described another occasion when invited by the Marquis Raimondi and his daughter to go fishing at night on Lake Como:

‘I flattered myself to be spending a happy night in the company of the woman of my soul; but it seemed to me that this resolution was not to the liking of the beautiful girl. This distressed me; and strong in my pride and dignity as a man, which I never lacked in such circumstances, I decided to forget that angel!

The Dashing Young Officer

Luigi Caroli, Giuseppina’s actual love

Giuseppina’s affections lay elsewhere far distant from the Hero of Italy. She was in love with a dashing young officer in the regular army, the 25 year old Gigio (Luigi) Caroli. Caroli came from a wealthy family based in Bergamo who had made their money from silk weaving. The two youngsters had first met in Milan and had developed a strong affection for each other.

However the Marquis Giorgio Raimondi was strongly in favour of seeing his daughter marry Italy’s great hero once he was aware of Garibaldi’s obsessive love for Giuseppina. He and the Raimondi family would gain a lot from such a union including a guaranteed seat for himself in the national senate of a soon to be unified Kingdom of Italy. Parental pressure was such that Gigio must have decided there was no future for him together with Giuseppina as a young couple. Whilst still retaining a strong regard for Giuseppina, but confronted with the indomitable will of her father, he broke off their affair.

The Marriage

The chapel in tthe park of the Villa Raimondi in Fino where Giuseppina and Garibaldi were married.

On the break up with Gigio, a devastated Giuseppina lost all will to resist her family pressure. So on November 28th 1859, and in response to numerous proposals of marriage from Garibaldi, she wrote to him acquiescing to his wishes.

On receiving this news, Garibaldi set off immediately for Villa Raimondi in Fino to verify that all was as he had hoped and sent the following somewhat contradictory letter in reply:

30 November 1859

Adorable Giuseppina, I am torn by two feelings that trouble me in an inconceivable way: love and duty! I love you with all my soul, I would give what remains of this tormented life to be yours for just one moment! My duty forbids me to be yours!.. To make you, whom I idolize, mine.

I have a plebeian woman on the island and from that woman I have a little girl. This would be the least obstacle because I can’t love her anymore and would not tell her I do!

By joining you, beautiful girl, I would go back on that characteristic of sacrifice to which I can attribute a good part of my popularity and which I appreciate. And which I may still need in order to fight for the Fatherland, when Italian affairs still call me to lead soldiers into battle where it might be said of Garibaldi: he has sold himself to fortune … And divorced himself from the people to whom he had so often boasted of wanting to serve until death.

That I am poor – your angelic and generous heart has already forgiven me. But the fact that I am of an older age to yours, and in not too good health – is a strong obstacle, and one which I must not allow your indulgent sympathy to observe. Soon perhaps I will no longer be a fit companion of florid beauty – I will be reduced to burdening you “living a desperate life! Or killing myself! Because I certainly couldn’t cope with your repulsion!” Reply to me immediately! I am in a state that cannot be waited on …Do not be angry, for God’s sake, with who loves you so much! But allow me to distance myself from you with your esteem, your friendship and the consciousness of having done my duty. Yours for life and whatever happens! G. Garibaldi

Needless to say, Marquis Giorgio Raimondi did not allow these scruples to interfere with the plans, although Garibaldi had identified at least one source of potential hostility to the marriage. Some Garibaldi supporters feared that his marriage to such a young bride would deflect him from his planned invasion of Sicily to complete the unification of the entire country. But Giuseppina was a committed patriot and would have been in full support.

Yet there was another person, very close to home, who was not at all happy about the marriage. This was Pietro Rovelli from another of Como’s long established aristocratic families who had provided Garibaldi with overnight accommodation following the victory at San Fermo six months previously. For now he keeps his opposition hidden as the plans for the marriage proceed.

The decorated ceiling of the bedroom in the Palazzo Olginati Rovelli at No. 56, Piazza Volta where Garibaldi spent the night on May 27th 1859 after the successful Battle of San Fermo

In the meantime Marquis Giorgio Raimondi is totally delighted by having Garibaldi as his house guest in the Villa Raimondi from the start of December. But the General has a riding accident when out with Giuseppina on the 8th and is confined to bed with a serious injury to his knee. Pietro Rovelli, in his role as Captain of the Como National Guard, pays him a courtesy call on the 18th to pay homage to Italy’s greatest hero. He does not express any of his misgivings about the marriage at the time.

On 1st January 1860, Garibaldi is recalled back briefly to the Royal House of Savoy in Turin and it is now Giuseppina’s turn to be confined to bed suffering from typhoid. Finally, with Giuseppina on the road to recovery, the marriage date is fixed for the 24th for it to take place in the chapel within the grounds of the villa in Fino. Invitations are sent out to over 200 guests but few are able to fit in the chapel itself to witness the ceremony. And so few get to witness the drama that unfurls at the end of the service as the newlyweds step out of the chapel.

The Separation

As Garibaldi steps out from the chapel with his bride, one of his soldiers rides up to deliver a note to him in person. The note, written anonymously, denounces Giuseppina for infidelity and betrayal of Garibaldi due to an ongoing carnal affair with Luigi Caroli. Garibaldi’s reaction was immediate and turning to his young bride he shouted, “Signora, you are a whore!”. She in turn replied,”I thought I had given myself to a hero, but you act just like a common soldier.” Thus their relationship ended. Giuseppina left to stay in the Raimondi family’s villa in Como, the Villa Olmo, whilst Garibaldi returned to the Villa Raimondi before later leaving for Milan and Turin. The two would never see each other again.

The marriage would be deemed ‘ratified but not consummated’ and Garibaldi would seek its immediate annulment but he only finally managed to achieve this twenty years later.

No doubt Giuseppina would have preferred to have been at the altar with her young dashing officer but he had renounced her as a result of the pressure and ambitions of the Raimondi clan. She in her desperation had conceded to her father’s wishes, and although not in love with Garibaldi, was resigned to the future marked out for her by these two elder men. But who had written the damaging note and why? Suspicion then and later fell on Pietro Rovelli, who, as cousin to Giuseppina, had been invited by her to attend the ill-fated ceremony.

Pietro Rovelli

Palazzo Vietti Rovelli at No. 54 Piazza Volta on the left and Palazzo Olginati Rovelli at No. 56 on the right. Both buildings were owned by the Olginati family during the 17th century.

Pietro Rovelli was, similar to the Raimondis, a member of a long established aristocratic family with a recorded presence in Como from the 1400s. He too bore the title of Marquis which had been conferred to the family by the Austrian Emperor Charles VI, father of the more famous Maria Teresa. He too was a patriot albeit with a less visible role during the ‘Cinque Giornate’ rebellion in 1848 but did have a distinguished military career fighting alongside Garibaldi. He was born in July 1817 and thus 42 years old at the time of his cousin Giuseppina’s wedding.

Chapel and gardens in Fino Mornasco

His relationship with the Raimondis was not strong in spite of family connections. His early military career had been lacklustre whilst serving in the Austrian army. He only managed to reach the rank of corporal after a full eight years of service which ended in 1844. He was also considerably less wealthy than the Raimondis. He had been responsible for administering some of the Raimondi family affairs but had been sacked for ineffectiveness. He saw developing a strong relationship with Garibaldi as the way to further his fortunes.

Rovelli never admitted to authoring the letter that provoked the immediate collapse of Garibaldi’s second marriage. But in all his later accounts of the period, he managed to scandalise the reputation of Giuseppina and provoked a vendetta dividing the Raimondi and Rovelli families.

He started off by suggesting that the atmosphere at the actual wedding was as at a funeral with no sense of celebration. He reports that immediately after the service, but before Garibaldi had read the anonymous note, Giuseppina had taken off her wedding ring to swap it with one given her by Caroli.

The ‘Torre dell’amore’ on the periphery of the Villa Raimondi in Fino where it is alleged Giuseppina met with Gigio Caroli on the night before her marriage to Garibaldi.

He then went on to state how he had spent the entire night prior to the wedding patrolling the grounds of the Villa Raimondi to prevent Gigio Caroli from visiting Giuseppina. He claimed that he had failed and that the young lovers had met in the park in the so-called ‘Torre dell’amore’. To give fuel to Rovelli’s accusations was the fact that Giuseppina had admitted at the beginning of January that she was pregnant. But she never stated by whom.

Rovelli himself sought to justify himself in accounts to Garibaldi and other members of his entourage. The following is one of his accounts of his actions the day after the wedding.

I immediately left that house with a broken heart. The next day, in Como, I was called on by Colonel Deidery, who told me and confided in me that he had followed like a bloodhound the trip to Como of Donna Giuseppina who had used as a pretext for her trip that she had some shopping to do, while, from letters intercepted at Camerlata, he knew it was for a meeting with Caroli at Olmo (Palazzo Raimondi) in Como; having been able to ascertain that Donna Giuseppina went alone to the Santa Teresa Barracks with Mr. Mancini, another of her lovers, and that she left after some time accompanied by the same, who, bidding him farewell, left to go to Olmo in the company of Caroli.

The following day, there was a message from a Raimondi servant, who was to take me immediately to Olmo, where Donna Giuseppina needed to speak to me.

When I went there, I found her with her mother, and as soon as I was close to her, she insulted me with the most basic insults, and it seemed like the fury of Inferno, who wanted to tear me to pieces, telling me that the General had abandoned her because of my denunciations, and that I would pay the price for such infamy.

I didn’t let myself be surprised, although I was shocked by what I heard, adding that if Deidery had said I was the author of her misfortune, whether true or not, it would have been justified.

I immediately took the railway to Milan and found myself in Cucciago with the General, who had come from Fino, and in Milan I apologized to him for not having warned him of the bad situation in which he had fallen, and he obliged me, on my honour, to testify what was within my knowledge, on the questions that were asked of me.

Shortly afterwards, everywhere there was much talk and numerous assertions of Giuseppina’s already advanced pregnancy, attributed to Caroli (with whom shortly afterwards Giuseppina left for Switzerland, it being disclosed that a few months later she had been relieved of a child).

I kept silent about every fact relating to these scandalous events, because I was made to promise so by Garibaldi ‘

The above is an extract from Rovelli’s memoirs passed on by him to Garibaldi towards the end of 1860 and published in 1909 by his great grandson in a collection entitled ‘Luci ed ombre sul drammo di Fino’.

The Aftermath

Giorgio Raimondi inherited Villa Olmo in Como on the death of Innocenzo Odescalchi in 1824. It was just one of the numerous villas owned by the Raimondi family at the height of their fortunes.

As Rovelli reported in the extract above, Giuseppina left the family home in Fino to take up residence for a few days in Villa Olmo where she was joined by Gigio Caroli. The general population was scandalised by the treatment of Italy’s greatest hero and shunned both Giuseppina and the rest of her family.

The world around the Marquis Giorgio Raimondi collapsed as he and his family were socially marginalised. Giuseppina’s sister complained how she could no longer attend any of the society balls down in Milan. The Marquis had to denounce any possibility of being elected to the Royal Senate when war ended in 1861 in spite of his years of active dedication and financial contributions to the patriotic cause. He lived on isolated from Como’s other aristocratic families until he died in 1882, in the same year as the death of Garibaldi.

The gardens of the Villa Raimondi in Gironico. Giuseppina came to live here on her return to Como

Giuseppina and Gigio left Villa Olmo together shortly after the scandal broke heading for Paris via Lugano and Zurich. However their relationship did not last and they separated in June or July of the same year. Giuseppina returned to Como but was ordered by Giorgio to live away from Fino in another of the family villas in Gironico.

Giuseppe Garibaldi and Francesca Armosino, his third wife.

Garibaldi had sought an annulment of his marriage to Giuseppina from the day following the ceremony under the legal definition of a marriage ‘rato e non consumato’ (ratified and not consumed). However it took him twenty years to achieve the annulment. He had become increasingly anxious to get the divorce so as to marry Francesca Armosino and thus legitimise their two surviving children, Clelia born in 1867 and Manlio born in 1873. He turned to the press in his campaign to achieve the annulment asking them to publish scurulous accusations against Giuseppina of incest and other excesses, as follows:

“Illustrious director of the Secolo di Milano, please publish: Mrs. Giuseppina Raimondi, transgressing against me in order to cover up her defamatory behavior in the eyes of public opinion, is today with a manifesto of innocence, she must remember that she wrote to me to go and free her while I was embarking from Genoa for Caprera. It was probably to remove her from the incestuous state with her father of the various lovers and her state of pregnancy over time in which she impudently deceived me. I have sufficient proof of her crimes and I will produce them when the time comes.”

The newspapers refused to publish this recognising that they would immediately face court action brought by Giorgio Raimondi for defamation of character.

The Villa Raimondi in Minoprio where Giuseppina married Lodovico Mancini

The annulment was in any case granted in 1879 allowing Garibaldi to marry his Francesca and for Giuseppina to marry Lodovico Mancini. It was perhaps only fitting that Giuseppina, who had always been a consistent and dedicated patriot, should marry another patriot with a distinguished military record fighting alongside Garibaldi whom he considered a close friend. They were married on 21st June 1879 in a civil ceremony at another of the Raimondi villas in Minoprio. He went on to live until October 1912 with Giuseppina dying six years later at the age of 77 at yet another of the Raimondi villas in Birago.

The Villa Raimondi in Birago where Giuseppina went to live her last years.

As for the other players in our lakeside scandal, Gigio Caroli, his brother Bernardo and a close friend Carlo Ceresa were all denied permission to join Garibaldi on his mission to conquer Sicily later in 1860, Instead Gigio joined a force of Garibaldini that went out to support the Polish War for Independence from Russia. He was taken prisoner during a battle near Cracow in May 1863 and then sent as prisoner to Siberia where he died two years later.

Conclusion

The scandal that broke over the Raimondi family arose from Giuseppina bowing to the pressure from her father to accept the proposal from Italy’s almost sanctified hero of the Risorgimento. The malicious intervention of Pietro Rovelli caused that marriage to fail. Was that failure in the long run for the best? At least Giuseppina and Garibaldi independently were later to find future happiness.

Perhaps the principal victim was the Marquis Giorgio Raimondi, the patriarch who had pressured his daughter into accepting the marriage proposal out of personal pride and ambition.

Maybe some would suggest that both Giuseppina and Caroli should have stood their ground and resisted Raimondi pressure. But once one of them, Gigio, caved in, Giuseppina’s own resistance was mortally weakened, and the seeds of the ensuing tragedy duly sown. I leave the last words on this to Giacomo Curatulo from his book ‘Garibaldi e le donne.‘

“What storm must not have stirred in the heart of the young patriot who, remaining faithful to her Caroli, resisting all the vanity and flattery of the offer of love from a man like Garibaldi; then suddenly abandoned by the man of her heart, in the throes of despair due to the disillusionment she suffered, pressed by paternal authority and under the dominion of one of those psychological states which, without resorting to repugnant accusations, explain many things, she decides on her fate and writes to the man she doesn’t love, but by whom she knows she is loved, to make her his?”

The plaque honouring the life of Giuseppina Raimondi at Birago.

Acknowledgments

Information for this article has come principally from Garibaldi, verità nascoste alla storia by Arduino Francescucci, Vincenzo Amore.

Lake Como and the Grand Tour

Posted on March 21, 2025 by comocompanion

Panorama of the Como leg of Lake Como, ca 1850

The Grand Tour was initially a key part of the finishing education for upper class Englishmen intended to acquaint them with the classical world and its rediscovery through the Italian Renaissance. Interest in the classics declined at the turn of the nineteenth century as the influence of Romanticism grew. And so Lake Como became an increasingly popular destination for those seeking the ‘sublimity’ of its dramatic landscape. Throughout the century a distinguished list of international writers, artists and musicians recorded and published accounts of their visit to the lake. Excerpts from twenty of these accounts have now been translated into Italian and published by Edizioni Sentierodeisogni with the title ‘Lago di Como Grand Tour’. This book serves as a great reminder of our cultural heritage and of what lies at the heart of the lake’s ongoing appeal to the ever increasing number of visitors from abroad. Here below is a brief selection of some of the entries in this fascinating collection.

The Poets

The first excerpt in the collection is taken from the father of Romanticism, William Wordsworth, in his Descriptive Sketches, first published in 1793 with a final edition in 1836. This poem describes his journey over the Alps and along the banks of our lake undertaken in 1790. From its total of 670 lines of rhyming couplets, 70 are dedicated to the lake, with 30 of them posted below:

More pleased, my foot the hidden margin roves

Of Como, bosomed deep in chestnut groves.

No meadows thrown between, the giddy steeps

Tower, bare or sylvan, from the narrow deeps.

To towns, whose shades of no rude noise complain,

From ringing team apart and grating wain

To flat-roofed towns, that touch the water’s bound,

Or lurk in woody sunless glens profound,

Or, from the bending rocks, obtrusive cling,

And o’er the whitened wave their shadows fling

The pathway leads, as round the steeps it twines;

And Silence loves its purple roof of vines.

The loitering traveler hence, at evening, sees

From rock-hewn steps the sail between the trees;

Or marks, ‘mid opening cliffs, fair dark-eyed maids

Tend the small harvest of their garden glades;

Or stops the solemn mountain-shades to view

Stretch o’er the pictured mirror broad and blue,

And track the yellow lights from steep to steep,

As up the opposing hills they slowly creep.

Aloft, here, half a village shines, arrayed

In golden light; half hides itself in shade:

While, from amid the darkened roofs, the spire,

Restlessly flashing, seems to mount like fire: 0

There, all unshaded, blazing forests throw

Rich golden verdure on the lake below.

Slow glides the sail along the illumined shore,

And steals into the shade the lazy oar;

Soft bosoms breathe around contagious sighs,

And amorous music on the water dies.

The edition of the Critical Review published in August 1793, is somewhat scathing of Wordsworth’s style, and whilst stating that his lines on Como are some of the best, the reviewer clearly dislikes the overall effect stating ‘his lines are often harsh and prosaic; his images ill-chosen, and his descriptions feeble and insipid.’ The author of the article in the Monthly Review published in October 1793 is even more critical as he opines: ‘More descriptive poetry! Have we not yet enough? Must eternal changes be rung on uplands and lowlands, and nodding forests, and brooding clouds, and cells, and dells, and dingles?’ Possibly a response shared by generations of future schoolchildren!

Como engraved by Samuel Prout 1839

Other poets sufficiently enchanted by the lake to attempt to capture its charm include Samuel Rogers, a contemporary of Wordsworth, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who became enamoured of Cadenabbia during his stay in 1868. In a letter to a friend and colleague, James T. Field, he states:

‘I last wrote to you from Lugano. From that pleasant place we moved to another even more pleasant; namely Cadenabbia on Lake Como. That was Italy as suggestive as Italy can be when it tries. The weather was delightful, neither too hot or too cold but delightfully temperate with all the necessary elements for creating an ideal climate. One did not see or feel any insects! And a gentle current of air rose and fell on the lake, no more than needed to make a small breeze. No road goes to Cadenabbia, only a footpath that follows the lake front, between it and numerous villas… It has been difficult to leave here. Arriving here just for the night we stayed for a week.’

Mary Shelley’s first trip to Italy in the company of her husband and young children was to end tragically with the deaths of her husband and her second and third child. Back in April 1818, and well before her husband’s death in 1822, the Shelleys were planning their stay at the Villa Pliniana, outside of Torno. It was then almost a ruin but one located magnificently on the lakeside, in almost constant shade and with its famous stream cascading intermittently though its structure. The Grand Tour collection includes a letter sent by Percy Shelley to his friend Lord Byron, then in Venice, inviting his fellow poet to stay with the couple. He writes: ‘If you have never seen this delightful and sublime scenario, I think it would be worth your while. Would you like to spend a few weeks with us? Our way of living remains the same as you will remember it when we were in Geneva, and the spot we have chosen (the Villa Pliniana) is isolated and surrounded by magnificent landscape, with the lake at our feet. ‘

Villa Pliniana, now a luxury hotel

Mary Shelley would later return to Italy and to Lake Como in 1840 in the company of her only surviving child when she spent considerable time in Cadenabbia. (Our article entitled Holidaying on Lake Como: In the Footsteps of Mary Shelley describes her stay in detail.)

The Novelists, Essayists and Assorted Writers

As would be expected most of the other entries in the collection are from established authors and include Gustave Flaubert, Mark Twain, Henry James, Edith Warton, August Strindberg and Franz Kafka.

Isola Comacina by Sophia Hawthorne, 1839. Note her fanciful edition of a Roman temple in Sala Comacina

There is also an entry for the author of ‘The Scarlet Letter’, Nathaniel Hawthorne who came to appreciate Lake Como through a couple of paintings created and gifted to him as an engagement present by his fianceé Sophia Amelia Peabody in 1840. Neither Nathaniel nor his wife had ever or would ever visit Lake Como but the two paintings – one of Menaggio and the other of Tremezzina taking in Bellagio and Isola Comacina – took pride of place in their matrimonial home ‘The Old Manse’ in Concord, Massachusetts. They are currently on show at the nearby Peabody Essex Museum.

Sophia Hawthorne, Villa Menaggio 1840

Here is an excerpt from his letter to Sophia dated January 24th 1840 on receipt of the two paintings:

Ownest Dove,

Your letter came this forenoon, announcing the advent of the pictures; so I came home as soon as I possibly could—and there was the package! I naturally trembled as I undid it, so eager was I to behold them. Dearissima, there never was anything so lovely and precious in this world. They are perfect. So soon as the dust and smoke of my fire had evaporated, I put them on the mantelpiece, and sat a long time before them with clasped hands, gazing, and gazing, and gazing, and painting a fac-simile of them in my heart, in whose most sacred chamber they shall keep a place forever and ever. Belovedest, I was not long in finding out the Dove in the Menaggio. In fact, she was the very first object that my eyes rested on, when I uncovered the picture. She flew straightway into my heart—and yet she remains just where you placed her. Dearest, if it had not been for your strict injunctions that nobody nor anything should touch the pictures, I do believe that my lips would have touched that naughty Sophie Hawthorne, as she stands on the bridge. Do you think the perverse little damsel would have vanished beneath my kiss? What a misfortune would that have been to her poor lover!—to find that he kissed away his mistress. But, at worst, she would have remained on my lips. However, I shall refrain from all endearments, till you tell me that a kiss may be hazarded without fear of her taking it in ill part and absenting herself without leave.

One year later (1841) Friedrich Engels, Karl Marx’s collaborator and co-author of ‘The Communist Manifesto’, recorded his visit to Lake Como under the pseudonym Friedrich Oswald in an article entitled ‘Lombardische Streifzuege’. He followed the route of the Via Francigena Renana down from Coira (Chur) to Chiavenna. He contrasts the drama of the gorge of the Via Mala as the Rhine cuts a vertiginous passage through the rocks from the heights of Splugen with the warm, and fertile valley of Chiavenna: In his words as he nears Chiavenna:

‘Finally the valley opens up and, turning a curve, one sees rising ahead the tower of Chiavenna (Claewn in German), one of the main cities in the Valtellina. Chiavenna is already a completely Italian city, with its tall houses and narrow streets, where in every corner one hears colourful interjections in Lombard dialect.

Whilst we were dedicating our attention to an Italian dinner washed down with a Veltliner (Engels seemed particularly appreciative of this particular wine variety), the sun disappeared behind the Rhaetian Alps. We then climbed aboard an Austrian carriage going to Lake Como with an Italian driver and and a carabiniere as escort…..Later we crossed a green area of vineyards, with vine runners trailing over pergolas and the tops of mulberry trees. The warm italian air led me to recognise, ever increasingly, the charm of a land and nature still unknown but long dreamed about: a charm that ran through my body as a sweet shiver, whilst my spirit kept returning to all the extraordinary beauty on offer to my gaze. And so, full of happiness, I fell asleep.’

Available on Amazon.it

Those wishing to trace the route taken by Engels from Coira to Como can follow the Guide to the Via Francigena Renana published by Iubilantes.

Lady Morgan, born 1781 in Ireland to a Catholic father and a Protestant mother, became a renowned author, a champion of women’s emancipation and supporter of national independence movements including support for revolutionary France and Italian liberation from Austrian rule. Her travelogue on Italy was published in three volumes in 1821. Her volumes on Italy aimed to go beyond a travel guide to ‘contribute to the regeneration of a country oppressed by foreign occupation’ as of course, was her native Ireland. Thirty pages of her travelogue are dedicated to Como. She reported on a city of narrow, run-down malodorous streets, of a population kept in thrall of religious superstition and a local economy throttled by alien restrictions.

Como, 1850 Engraving by Giuseppe Elena

Chapter IX of Italy, Volume 1 (1821) is dedicated in its entirety to a description of Como. She introduces the chapter with an astute and still highly relevant paragraph on the city’s geo-political significance:

‘Above all the Northern districts of Italy, Como, its lake, its city, and its mountains, seem pre-eminently distinguished by historical interest. The natural beauty of its scenery, its border position on the frontiers of states varying in clime, language, and soil, early rescued this Eden of Lombardy from obscurity, and rendered its magnificent solitudes the sites of many contests, and the witnesses of many crimes.’

While almost all other travellers seem entirely focussed on the glory of the landscape, Lady Morgan adds perceptive commentary on the political and economic realities of what is essentially an Austrian dominated garrison town. Once reading her account of the numerous barracks, the strict curfews and the atmosphere of espionage and observation imposed by its ‘imperial masters’, you come to more readily appreciate the significance of Como’s acts of rebellion later in the nineteenth century such as the ‘5 Giornate’ in 1848, with the subsequent surrender of the Austrian garrison in Piazza Vittoria and Garibaldi’s victory at the Battle of San Fermo in 1859. And as for the ongoing series of ‘contests and crimes’, it’s far from accidental that Lake Como would ‘witness’ the executions that brought an end to the nazifascist conflict in 1945.

On the local economy, Lady Morgan states: ‘The principal resources of this ‘Regia Città’ are the manufacture of a little silk and cotton (carried on under every restriction that can check its success) and the adventurous enterprises of smuggling, by far the most prospering and profitable of its ways and means.’ Silk production was to grow immensely in importance as the century progressed (and following liberation from Austrian rule) such that silk finishing is still as important to the local economy today as is tourism. As for smuggling, that remained a constant right into the 1970s and 80s, when a day trip to the lake from Milan would often include the purchase of a carton of contraband cigarettes.

The charm and beauty of Lake Como, from Careno

But, notwithstanding the socio-political issues, even Lady Morgan could appreciate the glories of the local landscape: ‘But whatever the internal defects of Como, however gloomy its streets and noxious its atmosphere, the moment that one of the little boats which crowd its tiny port is entered, and pushed from the shore, the city gradually becomes a feature of peculiar beauty in one of the loveliest scenes ever designed by nature.’

Canova’s Cupid and Psyche in Villa Carlotta

An appreciation of Canova’s ‘Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss’ in Villa Carlotta led the author of Madame Bovary into an ardent embrace of the statue, as recorded in his Notes de Voyages published in 1910. Flaubert shared Liszt’s love of Bellagio and in this was preceded by Mark Twain who wrote his account of his stay on Lake Como in ‘The Innocents Abroad or the New Pilgrims’ Progress’ published in 1869. The translation into Italian of the Mark Twain excerpts, for inclusion in this current collection, was done under instruction of their teacher Laura Gornati by pupils of Class 4F of the Istituto Vanoni di Menaggio. Another American visitor to the same area of the lake was Henry James who included his account of up to forty years of visits to Italy in ‘Italian Hours’ published in 1909.

The novel by Alexei Tolstoy set in and around Como

The collection includes an excerpt from ‘The Vampire’ – a gothic melodrama set in Como and written in 1841 by Alexei Tolstoy, an ancestor of the more famous Russian author, Leo Tolstoy. Alexei truly loved Italy and Lake Como. He was said to have come to Como to undertake a course of treatment called ampelo or grape therapy designed to rid the body of toxins and cure cardiovascular issues. His treatment centre was in Tavernola between Como and Cernobbio. The area was covered in vineyards in his time. Apart from following this strange course of treatment which involved eating copious quantities of grapes, he had time to fall in love with Peppina, the daughter of one of the guardians of Villa Olmo. Both the villa and Peppina feature in Tolstoy’s novella.

Cernobbio’s vineyard. One of the few remaining vineyards near to Como.

The famous Nobel laureate Albert Einstein was another visitor to the lake in the company of his fianceé Mileva Maric who recorded their trip in 1901 in a series of letters to her friend, Helene Savic. Albert was staying with family in Milan and Mileva was studying in Zurich when they met up on 5th May 1901 at Como’s San Giovanni station, from where they journeyed up the lake taking in the key resorts. During their holiday, Mileva became pregnant and their child was then born at the end of January or start of February 1902 but was immediately entrusted to Mileva’s friend, Helene. From that point on, the life and fate of Albert and Mileva’s child was a mystery with the likeliest outcome being its adoption by Helene and a change of name. Like many others before her, Mileva and Albert were impressed by Villa Carlotta:

‘At Cadenabbia we stayed for a while and visited Villa Carlotta. I don’t know how to describe to you the splendour we found everywhere. You know, some of Canova’s works are displayed there and there is a beautiful garden that remains in my heart, no less because it is forbidden to pick a single flower. It was the most splendid spring when we visited and we could not have imagined that the day after we would be riding a sledge in a whirl of snow.’

Einstein was later famously to refuse an invitation to come to Como, six years after being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics, to attend the gathering of Nobel prizewinners in 1927 organised to celebrate the centenary of the death of Alessandro Volta. His gesture was made in opposition to the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini. He did however visit the Tempio Voltiano in 1933, shortly before his emigration to the United States, to honour Como’s most famous son.

The gathering of Nobel prizewinnners and physicists at the 1927 Congresso dei Fisici which Einstein did not attend in opposition to the fascist regime.

The other authors included in this collection are August Strindberg, Edith Warton, Franz Kafka, Stefan Zweig and Hermann Hesse. The collection has been put together by Pietro Berra, a local poet and journalist responsible for editing the cultural supplement of the local paper ‘La Provincia’. He has been ably assisted by professional translators as well as, in the case of Mark Twain, local schoolchildren. Pietro Berra has previously worked with local schools in translating and publishing Mary Shelley’s account of her second stay in Italy in the company of her one surviving child.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to Pietro Berra for his initiative in researching and publishing this collection of extracts from this rich variety of famous visitors. He is responsible for a number of other initiatives which go to make evident the historical cultural links of our territory. These include establishing the Lake Como Poetry Way and its Little Free Libraries.

This article is based on material available in Lago di Como Grand Tour, edited by Pietro Berra and published by Edizioni Sentiero dei sogni.

Other material and initiatives written, edited or organised by Pietro Berra are described in www.sentierodeisogni.it

References

The entire test of Wordsworth’s Descriptive Sketches can be found at archive.org as can Lady Morgan’s Italy Volumes 1 – 3.

Moltrasio’s stone and its ‘Ecomuseo’

Posted on February 15, 2025 by comocompanion

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Moltrasio stone was used to construct the Roman walls and the currently standing Barbarossa walls built in the 1200s

Moltrasio stone was the dominant building material used in and around Como from Roman days until the turn of the twentieth century. It is found at the heart of most buildings even if some may have then be adorned with a veneer of render or a dressing of Musso and Varenna marble.

Doorway to the villa opposite the Prefettura on Via Volta showing the use of black and white keystones around the entrance way, rendering on the walls and Moltrasio stone underneath.

Nothing more characterises the appearance of a town than the type of building materials used in their construction. Think of UK cities like the granite of Edinburgh or those Cotswold villages with their warm shades of sandstone. Or contrast the ancient russet brickwork in the centre of cities like Parma or Mantova in the Val Padana with the grey stone of the villages along the shores of Lake Como. And this local characteristic extends beyond the village centres through the lengths of dry stone walls supporting ancient terracing.

What Is Moltrasio Stone

Strata of Moltrasio stone over the border in the Parco delle Gole della Breggia

Moltrasio stone is a sedimentary rock formed over many years from deposits on the ancient sea bed. These strata of limestone, some containing fossils of ammonites or other sea creatures, are ideal for quarrying since they can be relatively easily cut into blocks for construction. Scientifically known as the Moltrasio Formation, the rocks were mostly developed in the Lower or Middle Sinemurian stage of the Lower Jurassic, as a result of tectonic changes impacting shallow water deposits on the south western edge of the Alps. The formation extends into the Canton Ticino in Switzerland and up to the area of Lake Lugano.

Sentee di Sort – Ex-limestone quarries above Moltrasio.

Moltrasio stone is therefore not only found in Moltrasio. It was quarried on both sides of the Como leg of the lake up to Argegno on the western side and Lezzeno on the east, but the area where the rock is best formed for use in construction is around Moltrasio and Carate on the west and between Torno and Nesso on the east. The quarries around Moltrasio and Carate are no longer exploited with the only remaining excavation taking place at Careno by the company called Gandola Srl.

In the Villages

Palanzo, village of stone

If visiting a village such as Palanzo above the lake shore in Faggetto Lario, you will be hard pressed to find more than a handful of buildings built or faced with any other material. The same goes for the medieval centres of most other villages sitting just behind the shoreline along the length of the lake. Alongside the preservation of ancient street patterns and paths, the use of Moltrasio stone ensures a remarkable uniformity in the form and feel of these ancient communities. However these are locations where the majority of visitors are less likely to venture being attracted for the most part to the shores of the lake itself where the bourgeoisie and aristocrats had built their stylishly designed sumptuous villas rigorously rendered in painted stucco. Take a town like Blevio for example, with its row of wealthy ‘stuccoed’ residences overlooking the lake and its series of bare stone districts strung out above.

In Como

Via Vitani, the only remaining part of the medieval quarter known as Cortisella with villas in Moltrasio stone and one dressed in corresponding shades of Musso and Varenna marble.

The most obvious and visible Moltrasio stone structures in Como are the city walls and their defensive towers. Less visible below street level are the Roman baths built with Moltrasio stone. A walk down Via Vitani (the oldest street in Como) will give you an idea of how ubiquitous Moltrasio stone would have been in medieval Como. But more prestigious materials were required for structures like the Duomo with its mosaic of coloured marbles. As also on the Broletto and surrounding the entrance ways into the aristocratic villas where the contrasting colours of Musso (white/light grey) and Varenna (black/dark grey) marble give a banding or chequered effect. While most of the city’s aristocratic villas were faced with a layer of stucco, the more prosaic Moltrasio stone remains at the heart of their construction.

Print by Gian Luigi Uboldi featuring the city’s main structures of architectural interest.

Only in relatively recent times has stone been replaced by reinforced concrete, first introduced in Como by local architect Federico Frigerio in the construction of the Politeama in 1920.

In the country

Palanzo when all the terraces were intensively cultivated. The decline in agriculture has transformed the hillsides around the lake since the 1940s.

The hillsides surrounding the lake would have looked very differently a mere eighty years ago before the major migration from the land to the towns after the last world war. Then the miles of terracing were constructed and maintained to maximise the acreage of productive agricultural land. And those terraces were (and are still) held in place by dry stone walls made from Moltrasio stone. Although some of these terrace walls are no longer clearly visible from a distance, they remain in place as a characteristic feature of our landscape. Their maintenance is not only vital for ensuring ongoing access to hillside walks and paths but also for preserving a key element of the local heritage. There is always the risk that the knowledge and skills required for dry stone walling get lost over time, and so we should praise the work of voluntary associations such as Miledù, based in Civiglio, who are committed to passing on the necessary skills to future generations and to playing their part in maintaining the countryside.

Volunteers from Miledù working on dry stone walls.

Sentee di Sort

This pathway linking Rovenna above Cernobbio to Moltrasio passes one of the largest of the old Moltrasio quarries. Sentee di Sort translates roughly from Como dialect into ‘path of the terraces’. Apart from offering delightful views over the lake, it also lets you see the extent of the old workings and the paths, obviously made of Moltrasio stone, laid down to transport the rock down to the town for onward shipment on the lake.

Motrasio – Cascata di Cam

Moltrasio represents itself as a town of water and stone and you will appreciate both these aspects by following the Sentee di Sort by turning off to the left on your arrival in Moltrasio to take in the waterfall known as the Cascata di Cam.

Moltrasio’s Stone Ecological Museum (Ecomuseo del Sasso)

Poster advertising one of the presentations organised by the Ecomuseo di Sasso di Moltrasio

We have already noted in a previous article how active Moltrasio’s local residents are in their ‘Pro-loco’ association in promoting the attractions of their delightful small town. They have now gone one step further in seeking to preserve knowledge and awareness of their local culture by forming the so-called ‘Ecomuseo del Sasso di Moltrasio’. An ‘Ecomuseo’ is not a traditional museum enclosed within four walls. Instead its a virtual reality animated by a voluntary association which aims to study, conserve, present and spread knowledge of their local artistic, social and cultural patrimony. Look out for notices on their Facebook page advertising their meetings and tours to this end. Without a physical heart, it is primarily the enthusiasm and commitment of its local volunteers that makes an Ecomuseo a reality. And Moltrasio’s residents are particularly active in promoting the attractions of their town.

Members of Pro Moltrasio demonstrating the traditional techniques for quarrying Moltrasio stone at the old quarry in Cavirolo during a FAI Open Day

Moltrasio is a fine example of a town where the full range of tourist facilities and attractions are available. At the top end of the market, the Villa Passalacqua is perhaps the most luxurious hotel on the lake with the Hotel Imperiale also seeking to cater to the lake’s image of an exclusive playground for the rich. But there still remain more affordable and accessible family hotels such as the Posta, of the type of establishment traditionally available to visitors over the past years. However those visitors who are prepared to make the climb up the steep set of stairs away from the shore will discover so much more within this medieval town of stone and water.

The flower beds at the side of the Broletto in Como are lined with Moltrasio stone quarried in Careno by Gandola Srl. They use modern techniques of extraction and finish to meet a variety of needs.

Further Information

More information on current quarrying can be found at Gandola’s website.

Follow this link for the Ecumuseo del Sasso di Moltrasio’s Facebook page.

Miledù is a social cooperative engaged in a number of activities in support of sustainable tourism and preservation of local rural culture. Visit their site for more information.

Good food at acceptable prices can be found at the Cooperativa Moltrasina

References

Further Information

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First Requirement: Conviviality

Essential Requirement: Quality

Traditional requirement: Regional Diversity and Identity

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Further Information

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References

Further Reading

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Luigi Agliati

Enrico Rusconi

Francesco Somaini

Eli Riva

Vitaliano Marchini

Aldo Galli

Giovanni Tavani

Federico Frigerio

Giuseppe Terragni

Giuliano Collina

Pelicans

Conclusion

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Caffé Bottegone

The Politeama and Tempio Voltiano

A Federico Frigerio Itinerary

Further Reading

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Keystone Carvings in Como

Melusina’s Origins

Melusina in Venice and Moltrasio

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Just Taking a Stroll

Visiting to Shop

Visiting to Eat

Visiting the Past

Conclusion

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The Marquis Giorgio Raimondi and Giuseppina

Unrequited Love

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The Marriage

The Separation

Pietro Rovelli

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Conclusion

Acknowledgments

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The Novelists, Essayists and Assorted Writers

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References

Further Reading

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What Is Moltrasio Stone

In the Villages

In Como

In the country

Sentee di Sort

Further Information

Further Reading

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